Managing Your Money in a Multigenerational Household
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Zohar Lazar When people move in, agree about how they'll be contributing and what they'll get in return. | It's no secret that the
is coming back. What's surprising is how well those of us in the middle of the sandwich are embracing it.
According to
study of 2,000 adults, about 85 percent say the door is open to adult kids who move back home for financial reasons. Those who have already experienced
feel pretty positive about it, says Richard Barrington, a senior financial analyst for MoneyRates: &Some say they enjoy it. Very few say they regret it.& But if there's anything that can muck it up, it's money. Here's how to navigate the transition financially.
Look forward
Your youngest child is a senior in college. Time to downsize? Not so fast, says Nanette Freedland, a Los Altos, California, marriage and family therapist. Look to the horizon first. Some 36 percent of all 18- to 31-year-olds were living at home in 2012, the Pew Research Center found. Anticipating a boomerang child seems the odds-on thing to do. Think about furnishing — hello, sleeper sofa — with this in mind.
Get specific
You and your new cohabitants need to agree about
and what they'll get in return. In the case of adult children, &there is absolutely a responsibility for the family to request some [financial] contribution,& says Freedland. Will they be paying rent, chipping in for utilities or food, maintaining their own cellphone? Work that out before they move in, and discuss how long the arrangement will last. (Among parents who said they'd let an adult child move in, most thought this should be for a year or less.)
Show your cards
You need to be clear about who's paying for what. &It's not as if the middle generation is exactly flush,& Barrington says. &People are behind on their own retirement savings, and while the younger generation has had trouble getting jobs, their parents have had a hard time getting raises.& Children don't always know how tough their parents have it financially. Now is the time to share.
Break the cycle
Last, says Charleston, South Carolina, financial adviser Tim Maurer, don't put your child's financial needs over yours. If you're the support system and put your situation at risk, the system collapses — then everyone is in trouble. &As they say before every flight, put on your own oxygen mask before you help others.&
What about your folks?
When it's your parents, not your kids, who show up with suitcases in hand, 79 percent of adults say the door is open. But the scenario is different for one big reason: This isn't likely to be temporary. So …
Assess the situation
Why is Mom moving in, asks therapist Nanette Freedland. &Does the family not believe in nursing care, or do they lack funds?& If the former, there may be resources to contribute to her ongoing living expenses and care. If the latter, your budget may have to morph to make room.
Can funds be freed up?
Consider not just Social Security and pensions, but home equity, says financial adviser Tim Maurer. If Mom's house is sold, you can use the money to finance an addition to your home or pay for care.
Open a dialogue
Before you call contractors, sit down and discuss tactics. Will Dad's proximity mean reducing after-school child-care expenses? Should Mom set up a monthly transfer of funds? And what's the process for making changes? Finally, include siblings if they're expected to chip in. &The goal is to figure out how [your parents] can be participating members of the family, not just a drain,& Freedland says.
—With additional reporting by Arielle O'Shea
, best-selling author, journalist and money editor at NBC's Today, is AARP's financial ambassador. Want more advice? Read previous columns at .
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difference in your community at CreatetheGood.orgIs the door open? | State Services CommissionThe Door is Open at NSF to Cultural Anthropologists - Lathrop - 2006 - Anthropology News - Wiley Online Library
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No abstract is available for this article.Opening the door to opportunity:adult guidance holds the key
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Opening the door to opportunity:adult guidance holds the key
Opening the door to 0opportunity: adult guidance holds the key
JONATHAN BROWNThe Open University in the North
This paper is based on a keynote talk given at the Conference of the Adult Educational Guidance Association of Ireland in October 2003. The title of the conference at Waterford – Opening the Door to Opportunity: Adult Guidance in Ireland –came as a happy coincidence in that I had just completed a editing a version of a 1986 report on adult guidance The Challenge of Change (Brown, 2003; UDACE, 1986).The 1986 report had been published with a newly designed logo which represented an opening door, so the task so recently completed resonated with the theme of theconference. The current paper retains the original image and reflects on the role of adult guidance in the arena of widening participation. The 2003 version of The Challenge of Change was published in the same month (December) as the English Department for Education and Skills released a policy paper on Information, Advice and Guidance for Adults (DfES, 2003). This coincidence in publication explains the postscript to allow comment on this development. In preparing this paper much of the flavour of the spoken original has been retained.The paper considers three questions:● What is the distinctive nature of work with adults in the arena of education, training and work?● What are the barriers to participation for adults in transition?● What is the nature of guidance?This is followed by a postscript on the English Policy Framework and Action Plan for Information, Advice and Guidance (IAG).KEYWORDS
Access, adult guidance, educational guidance, guidance,information advice and guidance, lifelong learning, widening participation IntroductionIn the middle 1980s, when I was still very young, I was involved in the workof a quango in England called the Unit for the Development of AdultContinuing Education. UDACE, as we called it, was created by the Secretaryof State for Education and Science in 1984. (For the work of UDACE seeMcNair, 2002.) UDACE examined areas of possible development in educationfor adults, and recommended strategies for development. The first and mostsignificant work it undertook was that on adult guidance. For the majorreport on adult guidance in 1986 UDACE commissioned a logo which, itargued, would give the public an immediate way of identifying a service oran institution which offered guidance. Our chief officer (Stephen McNair)worked hard on this logo, and when it was unveiled it looked like this:It was, of course, we all agreed, the opening doorwhich would give access to adults who wished toreturn to education, training and work. Adult guidance,we were certain, was the key to all the doors, whichwould then open to allow adults to overcome the manybarriers that had previously stood in their way. Theopening door logo would become as well known asother such logos which indicated information points,CABs or legal aid. It was the answer. We hoped that itwould be adopted by all services, institutions andadorn our publications and guides.Well, I have to report that the strategy failed. The logo was not universallyadopted, though it did appear on most UDACE publications on guidance upto the early 1990s. Why did it fail? Well it is a case of the half empty/half-fullglass. It’s all a matter of perception – what do you really see when you look atthe logo? Although the designers and commissioning group saw it as theopening door, other equally perceptive colleagues saw it as the closing door. Sothere it is on the page – is the door opening or is it closing?I must admit that I always saw it as opening (but then I always see theglass as half full!) and still feel that our collective failure in 1986 to establish alogo for guidance for adults was a noble failure. Moreover those involved inthis work today still lack an accepted logo or branding. Also I do like theopening-door metaphor for our work, so I am entirely comfortable with thetitle I have been given today.The report that launched the opening door logo was The Challenge ofChange: Developing Educational Guidance for Adults (UDACE, 1986). It provedto be a significant, almost seminal, document. It made a lasting impact on thedevelopment and practice of adult guidance not only in England but also farbeyond. It has also been used to analyse guidance in settings other than foradults. It is still widely cited by colleagues writing and speaking aboutguidance. In particular the seven activities of guidance are in current usage in
most services providing guidance for adults. Even in those services whereonly some of the seven activities are currently available, the terminology andconcepts are used as a way of understanding and evaluating practice. TheChallenge of Change has long been out of print, but, as it happens, an editedversion of the central chapters of the report was published in December 2003by NAEGA, the National Association for Educational Guidance for Adults(Brown, 2003). As I edited this new edition I will specifically draw on TheChallenge of Change in part of my talk today. In particular I will use it whenlooking at the nature of guidance for adults. I do so because I think that themessage from 1986 is still, with minor modification, relevant to the task of‘Opening the Door to Opportunity’ and the further development of educationalguidance for adults.But before moving to the nature of guidance, I wish to look at thedistinctive nature of working with adults, and at the barriers that still exist forthe adult in transition in terms of education, training and work. So my talkwill address three questions:● What is the distinctive nature of work with adults in the arena ofeducation, training and work?● What are the barriers to participation for adults in transition?● What is the nature of guidance?Discussion of these three questions is followed by a short postscript on thepolicy framework and action plan for IAG in England.What is the distinctive nature of work with adults in the arenaof education, training and work?Those working with adults in terms of guidance or education or trainingknow that the position of their clients is very different from that of youngpeople. Young people at some stage between 16 and 19 leave the worldof schooling in a transition to FE, HE, training, work and indeed the rest oflife. Their transition is expected, planned and shared with their peers. It is atransition anticipated by their families and their teachers. The routes are wellknown and anticipated. In contrast, adults in transition are already well intothe ‘rest of their life’, which is littered with experiences and responsibilities towhich the young could not aspire. Put simply, the adult client is not just achronologically older version of a young person. We adults face responsibilitiesboth in the personal and financial domains which tend to grow as we age. Weacquire responsibilities at work, within the family (partners, children andparents) and in the wider community. Some of these responsibilities arefinancial. Thus the relatively easy transition of the young person movingfrom school to work or training, from school to HE is in stark contrast to theserial (and often overlapping) transitions of the adult client/student/worker.An adult who is moving between education, training, non-working (includingretirement), voluntary activities and leisure does so amidst the messyreality of a life cluttered with responsibilities to and for people, homes, benefitsand taxation. The transitions faced by our adult clients are complicatedwith multi-faceted challenges. Moreover, our work in adult guidanceencompasses work with all adults of almost every age, economic status andaspiration, and involves the clarification of options at all educational levelsand modes of study.What are the barriers to adult participation for adults intransition?Access to learning, training and to work has been a central issue for adultguidance workers for a very long time (I almost said from the start of time!).However, in the UK until relatively recently access was conceived as beingabout access to HE. (This was particularly noticeable in the development ofaccess courses during the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s.) But I believethat this notion is unhelpful: access is about entry to all levels of learning andtraining. Where the client is identifying (in whatever words) difficulties withbasic skills, the concept of access as only being about HE entry is singularlyunhelpful: access must be about overcoming barriers to learning and participationat all levels.In looking at access for adults it is helpful to identify the barriers to participationin learning. These barriers are complex, and I have found the approachtaken by Liz Thomas in her recent book (2001) to be useful in dealing withthis complexity. (This despite the fact that she is talking about wideningparticipation to HE!) Thomas views the triggers for and barriers to participationas being in four categories:● the impact of ● the impact ● socia● individual issues.Each of these categories contains both triggers and barriers.The impact of the education system includes factors such as:● Gaining/failing to gain qualifications from compulsory schooling.● ‘Good’ qualifications being a ‘passport’ to further study (the concept hereis of qualifications being a sort of ‘ladder’ or high jump competition whereyou go on till you knock off the bar! To continue the sporting analogy, itwould be much better if we moved to the concept of the marathon, whereevery participant is deserving of applause).● Disposition towards learning – ‘negative attitudes are difficult to challengeand reverse’ (Thomas, 2001, p 82).● Reinforcement of social and economic advantage/disadvantage at school.● Costs in FE and HE often borne by student and/or family.● Competition for places in HE (with the wondrous exception of the OU).● Inappropriate support services for adult returners.● Distance.● Inflexibility in delivery.● The culture of institutions (some institutions are just not adult environments).The impact of the labour market includes factors such as:● The view taken of the advantage of study in terms of future employmentand wages. (In England and Wales there have been numerous widerangingpolitical assertions about the benefits of a university education interms of an increment to lifetime earnings. A figure of £400,000 for theaverage graduate has been mooted!)[NB Ted Wragg on this assertion: ‘...the biggest confidence trick of all wasthe announcement that graduates must pay for their studies because theywill earn £400,000 extra as a result of getting a degree. This is completeand utter cobblers. They will do nothing of the kind. This highly suspectfigure of £400,000 was estimated on the beneficiaries of a system whenonly 4 or 5 per cent went to university... It is no basis for a system wherehalf the population might graduate. (Wragg, 2003)]● The attitude of employers to further education and training.● Differential expenditure on work-based training by employment status.Social and cultural norms factors:● View that learning is not for ‘people like me’.● View that learning has little or no value to me.● An assumption of automatic progression to HE.Individual issues● Low aspirations or awareness.● Complexities of life and existing responsibilities.● You have to change to meet the norms/rules of the institution.● I am the problem.● How to meet my special needs.● Age (‘I’m too old to learn’).So I see access for adults as being ways of entry and re-entry to learning programmesfor education, training and work (including formal and informallearning) which cross all such barriers. Ways and methods of access whichtreat learners as equal irrespective of background in terms of age, financial orbenefit position, nationality, religion, politics, gender and special needs. Abigagenda with guidance at its heart. At its heart not only when contemplatingentry to learning (pre-entry) but also when joining a learning or training programme(at entry), during the learning experience (on programme) and whencompleting a particular course or module (and because of other responsibilitiesthis should include the premature exit) (at exit). (UDACE, 1986; Sadlerand Atkinson, 1998; Brown, 2003.)What is the nature of adult guidance?For practitioners and their managers the seven activities of guidance are thestarting point. This formulation is what is best remembered from TheChallenge of Change, the 1986 report which I mentioned earlier. There, theseven are given as:● Informing● Advising● Counselling● Assessing● Enabling● Advocating● Feeding back(UDACE, 1986, pp 24–5; Brown, 2003, pp 4–5)I wish to say a little about each of these linked activities in turn, but beforedoing this let me draw attention to two important features in this formulation.Guidance is an umbrella term covering a mixture of all seven activities. Thereis, however, increasing concern about official (DfES and LSC) use in Englandof ‘Information, Advice and Guidance’ (IAG) as if guidance were not anumbrella term. Indeed, Watts and Hawthorn see this in relation to therecently published IAG policy framework (DfES, 2003) as:Serving to compound rather than resolve the previous conceptual confusion. Theopportunity to confine the term ‘guidance’ to its generic usage has been lost by theretention of ‘IAG’. This leaves England out of line with other countries and internationalorganisations, where ‘guidance’ (EC; Ireland), ‘ career guidance’ (OECD;Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales) or ‘career development’ (World B Australia,Canada) are now used as the portmanteau terms. Adhering to ‘IAG’ – insiderjargon which means nothing to outsiders – even after the ‘G’ has effectively beenlopped off, seems particularly perverse (Watts and Hawthorn, 2004).All activities are in the dynamic ‘-ing’ format. This is particularly imporantin the case of information, which, I think, is a product or commodity withwhich we are awash. You can have information at the touch of a button andstill not be informed. Informing is an activity or process of engaging withinformation: it does not necessarily take place (only) at the start of theguidance process as it underpins the other six activities. [This is particularlyimportant in England where government seems addicted to what is nowcalled Information, Advice and Guidance. (IAG) But this formulation of IAGdoes not describe what is involved. Information is a mere commodity and is,by itself, static. Further, I am not clear what guidance is when separated fromthe seven activities.] (See discussion of this in Brown, 1999.)Turning to the seven activities:InformingProviding information is a step towards informing, and it underpins all the othersix activities. Also, as the 1986 report reminds us, information may need interpretationas ‘most published educational information is produced for promotionalpurposes, “pure” information is rare’ (UDACE, 1986, p 24; Brown, 2003, p 4).Advising is about helping clients to undertake that interpretation of informationand to choose ‘the most appropriate option’ (UDACE, 1986, p 24; Brown,2003, p 4).Counselling. Since the Challenge of Change was published in 1986, there hasbeen much discussion of the use of counselling as one of the seven activitiesof guidance. There are several problems here: some are over the meanings ofthe words we use, whilst others are about practice and training. Since 1986,counselling has becoming increasingly professionalised, with the advent ofprogrammes of appropriate and professional training of the counsellor. Thereis no doubt, however, that the effective guidance worker has to use skills fromcounselling practice. The guidance worker requires defined capability in theareas of attending, responding, and understanding.If the Challenge of Change were being drafted today it is likely that thecounselling activity would be reformulated as ‘Using Counselling Skills’. InIreland there may be other issues that arise, as the use of ‘counselling’ inschools and other environments for the guidance role (or what I wouldidentify from English experience as the guidance role) may mean that counsellingas originally formulated in 1986 is still appropriate.
Assessing was seen in 1986 as ‘Helping clients, by formal or informal means,to obtain an adequate understanding of their personal, educational andvocational development’ (UDACE, 1986, p 24; UDACE 2003, p 5). Helpfully,in later work by UDACE the assessing activity was further examined byJennifer Kidd. She stresses that assessing is an inevitable informal process inguidance work (Kidd, 1988) and that in particular:Assessment is not labelling. . . assessment is not some form of treatment , . . .mechanically applied. Rather it should provide a means of helping clientsthemselves gather and make use of information....Assessment is not simply ‘testing’. . . We all form impressions of others byjust being with them, though in everyday life we do not call these impressionsassessments. Impressions arise out of our perceptions of appearance, behaviourand speech... [in our work we gather these impressions for two purposes]...to help people themselves make decisions about their lives, or. . . to help othersmake decisions about them. We are concerned here with assessment in guidance,not as part of any selection process.The varied nature of practice A notable feature of the work of many of thepractitioners I talked to was the diversity of assessment techniques used... Amixture of techniques was often found most useful and the tools chosen varyaccording to the particular client, and his or her specific needs, and the resourcesavailable (Kidd, 1988, pp 3–4)Enabling was seen as helping clients to deal with third parties, and perhapsthe gaining of study skills. Working at much the same time as the UDACEDevelopment Group, Diane Bailey used a different term for the ‘enabling’activity. She used ‘coaching,’ which was defined as ‘Creating or structuring alearning experience so that the individual can practise and gain new knowledge,skills or perceptions’ (Bailey, 1987, p 90)Advocating was seen as advocacy on behalf of a client by ‘negotiating directlywith institutions or agencies on behalf of individuals or groups for whomthere may be additional barriers to access or to learning’ (Brown, 2003, p 5;UDACE, 1986, p 24).Feeding back was seen as a critical activity in drawing attention to unmet orinappropriately met needs. It was informing the education and trainingsystem of what more was needed.So there you have the seven activities which allow practitioners and theirmanagers to define and understand their role. But what about the clients?What do they do? (I am very grateful to Richard Edwards for developing ananalysis of guidance through an examination of the discourse used. See, in
particular, Edwards, 1998.) The position of the client in the guidance processis that they are:● our focus,● they make the decisions from among the options discovered, and● they do the interpreting, self-exploration, planning and review.I will go back yet again to The Challenge of Change which asserts that the‘central focus of any guidance process is the individual’ (UDACE, 1986, p 19;Brown, 2003, p 2). Within this focus it is the individual who make thedecisions. Here the later words of Stephen McNair are instructive: ‘[guidance]is a process of helping individuals to take control of their own decisions andto make decisions wisely’ (McNair, 1996, p 12). So it is about autonomy forour clients. And the process used by the client is that of:● evaluation,● identification,● planning, and● review.Or as the 1986 report puts it:Acomprehensive service of educational guidance for adults will be able toassist all adults to:● Evaluate their own personal, educational, and vocational development,possibly assisted by a guidance worker and/or formal assessment techniques.● Identify their learning needs and choose the most appropriate ways ofmeeting them, bearing in mind constraints of personal circumstances,costs, and availability of opportunities.● Pursue and complete a programme of learning as effectively as possible(this might include learning through a formal course, an open learningprogramme, a self-help group or self-directed private study).● Review and assess the learning achieved and identify future goals(Brown, 2003, p 4; UDACE, 1986, p 22).The final contribution to our understanding of adult guidance is to relate toeducation and training. How does the guidance process link to learning?Here, the answer given by The Challenge of Change is authoritative: ‘Guidanceis that essential component of education and training which focuses on theindividual’s personal relationship with what is to be learned’ (Brown, 2003,p 3; UDACE, 1986, p 20).I find this passage beguilingly direct and apposite. For in emphasising this
relationship between learner and what is to be learned, there is the possibilitythat there will be a better match between the needs and aspirations of theadult client and the opportunities available to them.So the message is that guidance for adults is a process which is:● dynamic,● helping,● empowering,● linking individuals to learning.Postscript: a policy framework and action plan for IAG inEnglandThe latest of several policy developments in England since 1986 is IAG with anational coverage of guidance partnerships. The DfES (2003) policy frameworkand action plan is the first major government document specificallyrelated to adult guidance (Dent, 2004). The intention is that:Information, Advice and Guidance (IAG) services have a pivotal role to play indelivering the Skills Strategy. They promote the benefits of learning, help individualsto address and overcome the barriers to learning and support them in makingrealistic and well informed choices.’ (Ministerial Foreword by Ivan Lewis,DfES, 2003)This sounds very similar to the language of the UDACE report. However, whenyou turn to the document itself (as opposed to the Foreword), there are, as Wattsand Hawthorn (2004) point out, ‘a number of significant ambiguities and limitations’(p 3). The policy framework promises integration between a range of guidanceproviders in the workplace, colleges and elsewhere in the networks whichhave been developed. There is also a firmer relationship between the telephonefacilities offered by ‘learndirect advice’ and face-to-face services. The action planalso sets firm targets in terms of clients: a full service will give ‘particular priorityto those people without a first full Level 2 qualification’ (DfES, 2003, p 12). Thishas created concern about how far such a service can be universal and equitablewithin such firm targets. Indeed, the Level 2 target ‘avoids spelling out thatrationing – of a rather crude sort – is what is proposed’ (Bailey, 2004). However,such target setting is a part of the access and social inclusion agenda and as suchis a further move forward to opening the door to learning.Opening the door to opportunity: is adult guidance the key?Having attempted answers to my three questions, and having given a shortpostscript, can I say where our doorway to opportunity stands? Is it half-open
or half-closed? I suggest that with a comprehensive service of guidance foradults it is more likely to be at least halfway open. I believe it is the key todeveloping a system of lifelong learning which is genuinely and equallyaccessible to all citizens at all stages of their journey through the serial transitionsthat are a part of life, learning, work and leisure. What is needed is aservice which is an ‘integral component’ (Brown, 2003, p 9; UDACE, 1986, p11) of our education and training provision. I hope that the development ofservice in very different formats in the four parts of the UK, and, indeed, inthe Republic of Ireland, will move forward in line with such a vision. (Foranother view on development of guidance for adults since 1986 see Rivis,2004.)Perhaps that should be my last word. Indeed, I do not readily or usuallyexit from a paper (or a lecture) with a quotation. However in this case I do sowillingly by recalling wise words from Professor Tony Watts. His wordsremind the reader of the difficulties encountered not from practice or theorybut from placing the guidance agenda in the wider societal frame. [Such aframework is necessary to have a full appreciation of the English IAGdocument which is so briefly discussed in the postscript].Guidance is a profoundly political process. It operates at the interface between theindividual and society, between self and opportunity, between aspiration andrealism. It facilitates the allocation of life chances. Within a society in which lifechances are unequally distributed, it faces the issue of whether it serves toreinforce such inequalities or reduce them’ (Watts, 1996, p 351).REFERENCESBailey, D (1987) Guidance in Open Learning: A Manual of Practice, Cambridge:NICEC and MSC.Bailey, D (2004) ‘Equal Opportunities, Targets and Rationing’, NAEGA Newsand Views, Summer 2004.Brown, J (1999) ‘Does guidance have a future? Notes towards a distinctiveposition’, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, vol 27(2), pp 275–82.Brown, J (ed) (2003) The Challenge of Change [Report by UDACE, 1986], Belfast,NAEGA.Dent, G (2004) ‘The English IAG policy framework: a perspective from thelearndirect advice service’, NAEGA News and Views, Summer 2004.DfES (2003) Information, Advice and Guidance: The National Policy Frameworkand Action Plan, London, DfES.Edwards, R (1998) ‘Mapping, locating and translating: a discursive approachto professional development’, Studies in Continuing Education, vol 20(1), pp23–38.
Kidd, JM (1988) Assessment in Action: A Manual for Those Engaged in EducationalGuidance for Adults, Leicester: NIACE for UDACE.McNair, S (1996) Putting Learners at the Centre: Reflections from the Guidance andLearner Autonomy in HE Programme, Sheffield, DfEE.McNair, S (2002) ‘UDACE – Unit for the Development of Adult ContinuingEducation’, in H Gilbert and H Prew (eds), A Passion for Learning: Celebrating80 years of NIACE Support for Adult Learning, Leicester: NIACE.Rivis, V (2004) ‘The Challenge of Change – why is it taking so long? –Areflection’, NAEGA News and Views, Summer 2004.Sadler, J and Atkinson, K (1998) ‘Managing guidance in FE’, in R Edwards, RHarrison and A Tait (eds), Telling Tales: Perspectives on Guidance andCounselling in Learning, London: Routledge, pp 138–52.Thomas, L (2001) Widening Participation in Post-compulsory Education, Londonand New York: Continuum.UDACE (1986) The Challenge of Change, Leicester: NIACE for UDACE.Watts, AG (1996) ‘Socio-political ideologies in guidance, in AG Watts, B Law, JKillen, JM Kidd and R Hawthorn (eds), Rethinking Careers Education andGuidance: Theory, Policy and Practice, London: RoutledgeWatts, AG and Hawthorn, R (2004) ‘IAG national policy framework: a critiqueand a way forward’, NAEGA News and Views, Spring 2004, pp 3–4Wragg T (2003) Column in The Times Educational Supplement, 3 January 2003,p 48.
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