From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
409 473 2,800 Chinese Christians
10,000 Manchu
bannermen, 10,000 Muslim
(engaged in combat)
20,000 Manchu bannermen (not engaged in combat)
Casualties and losses
55 soldiers killed, 135 soldiers wounded
13 civilians killed, 24 civilians wounded
The Siege of the International Legations occurred in the summer of 1900 in
(today Beijing), the capital of the , during the . Menaced by the Boxers, an anti-Christian, anti-foreign peasant movement, 900 soldiers, marines, and civilians, largely from Europe, Japan, and the United States, and about 2,800 Chinese Christians took refuge in the . The Qing government took the side of the Boxers. The foreigners and Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter survived a 55-day siege by the Qing Army and Boxers. The siege was broken by an international military force which marched from the coast of China, defeated the Qing army, and occupied Peking. The siege was called by the
"the most exciting episode ever known to civilization."
Map of the Legation Quarter, showing the defensive lines. Most civilians took refuge in the British Legation.
The Legation Quarter was approximately 2 mi (3.2 km) long and 1 mi (1.6 km) wide. It was located in the area of the city designated by the Qing government for . In 1900, there were 11 legations located in the quarter as well as a number of foreign businesses and banks. Ethnic Chinese-occupied houses and businesses were also scattered about the quarter. The 12 or so Christian
organizations in Beijing were not located in the Legation Quarter, but rather dispersed around the city. In total, there were about 500 citizens of Western countries and Japan residing in the city. The northern end of the Legation quarter was near the
resided. The southern end was bounded by the massive Tartar Wall which ringed the entire city of Beijing. The eastern and western ends were major streets.
By 1900 the
had been chipping away at Chinese sovereignty for 60 years. They had forced China to allow the import of , which caused
defeated C asserted a right to promote C and imposed
under which foreigners and foreign companies in China were accorded special privileges and immunities from Chinese law. Thus the
dynasty that had ruled China for more than two centuries was crumbling, and Chinese culture was changing due to the influence of a powerful alien culture.
Authorities differ as to the origin of the Boxers, but they became prominent in
in 1898 and spread northward toward Peking. They were an indigenous peasant movement, related to the secret societies that had flourished in China for centuries—and which, on occasion, had threatened Chinese central governments. The Boxers were named—probably by American missionary —for their acrobatic rituals which included martial arts, twirling swords, prayers and incantations. Similar to other anti-Western
movements around the world, such as the
in the US, the Boxers believed that with the proper ritual they would become invulnerable to Western bullets. The religious and magical practices of the Boxers had "as a paramount goal the affording of protection and emotional security in the face of a future... that was fraught with danger and risk." The Boxers had no central organization but appear to have been organized on the village level. They were anti-foreign and anti-missionary. Their slogan was "Support the Qing! Destroy the Foreigner!". Initially feared as a possible threat by the Chinese government, they slowly gained the support of influential politicians in Peking, who saw the Boxers as a movement that could be used to eliminate foreign influence in China.[]
One of the historical oil paintings by Western artists depicting Empress Dowager Cixi
A Boxer arrayed in his finery. Most were armed only with spears and swords.
In the spring of 1900 the Boxer movement spread rapidly north from Shandong into the countryside near Peking. Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. Two missionaries, Protestant
and Catholic , reported to the diplomatic ministers (Ambassadors) about the growing threat. American Minister
cabled Washington, "The whole country is swarming with hungry, discontented, hopeless idlers." Requesting a warship to be stationed offshore of Tianjin, the nearest port to Peking, he reported, "Situation becoming serious." On May 30, 1900, the diplomats, led by British Minister , requested that foreign soldiers come to Beijing to defend the legations and the citizens of their countries. The Chinese government reluctantly acquiesced, and the next day more than 400 soldiers from eight countries disembarked from warships and traveled by train to Beijing from Tianjin. They set up defensive perimeters around their respective missions.
On June 5 the railroad line to Tianjin was cut by Boxers in the countryside and Peking was isolated. On June 13 a Japanese diplomat, Sugiyama Akira, was murdered by soldiers of Gen.
and that same day the first Boxer, dressed in his finery, was seen in the Legation Quarter. The German Minister, , and German soldiers captured a Boxer boy and inexplicably executed him. In response, that afternoon thousands of Boxers burst into the walled city of Peking and burned most of the Christian churches and cathedrals in the city, killing many Chinese Christians and several Catholic priests. The Chinese Christians were accused of collaborating with the foreigners. American and British missionaries and their converts had taken refuge in the Methodist Mission and an attack there was repulsed by American marines. Soldiers at the British embassy and German legations shot and killed several Boxers.
British Minister Sir Claude MacDonald
In mid-June 1900 the Chinese government was still indecisive about the Boxers. Some officials—, for example—counseled the Empress Dowager that the Boxers were "rabble" who would be easily defeated by foreign soldiers. On the other side of the question were anti-foreign officials who advised cooperation with the Boxers. "The Court appears to be in a dilemma," said . "If the Boxers are not suppressed, the Legations threaten to take action—if the attempt to suppress them is made, this intensely patriotic organization will be converted into an anti-dynastic movement." The event that irrevocably pushed the Chinese government to the side of the Boxers was the attack by foreign warships on the
on June 17. The attack was made to try to maintain communications with Tianjin and aid an army under the command of Adm.
in its attempt to march to Beijing during the
and reinforce the Legations.
On June 19 the Empress Dowager sent a diplomatic note to each of the legations in Beijing informing them of the attack on Dagu and ordering all foreigners to depart Beijing for Tianjin within 24 hours. Otherwise, said the note, "China will find it a difficult matter to give complete protection." Upon receipt of the note, the diplomats convened and agreed it would be suicidal to leave the Legation Quarter and travel to the coast in an unfriendly countryside. The next morning, June 20, , the German Minister, proposed to take up the matter with the , the Chinese Foreign Ministry, but he was murdered by a Manchu officer, Capt. En Hai of the , while en route to the meeting. With this, the Ministers informed all their citizens in Beijing to take refuge in the Legation Quarter. Thus began the 55-day siege.
Frank Gamewell (second from left, standing) and the "Fighting Parsons" built fortifications to protect the British Legation from Chinese attacks.
The British, American, French, German, Japanese, and Russian military guards each took responsibility for the defense of their respective legations. The Austrians and Italians abandoned their isolated legations, joining the French and the Japanese, respectively. The Japanese and Italian force established defense lines in the Fu – a large palace and park where most of the estimated 2,800 Chinese Christians taking refuge were housed. The
and German marines held positions on the Tartar Wall behind their legations. The 409 guards had the job of defending a line that snaked through 2,176 yd (1,990 m) of urban terrain. The great majority of foreign civilians took refuge in the British Embassy, the largest and most defensible of the diplomatic legations. A census of civilians counted 473 people: 245 men, 149 women, and 79 children. About 150 of the men volunteered to participate, to a greater or lesser extent, in the defense. The civilians included at least 19 nationalities of which British and Americans were the most numerous. Large numbers of Chinese Christians were conscripted for labor, especially for building barricades.
The British Minister
was selected as the commander of the defense and , an American diplomat, became his chief of staff. The guards of the different countries, however, operated semi-independently and MacDonald could only suggest, not order, coordinated action. The guards were not well armed. Only the American marines had sufficient ammunition. The defenders had three machine guns. The Italians had a small cannon. Fortunately, an old cannon barrel and ammunition was found in the Legation Quarter and from it a serviceable artillery piece was constructed that the Americans called "Betsy" and others called "the International".
The defenders ransacked the Legation Quarter for food and other supplies. Food and water were adequate, although those without private food stocks subsisted on a steady diet of horsemeat and musty rice. However, the Chinese Christians, especially the Catholics, had a much harder time of it and by the end of the siege were starving. The Protestant missionaries took care of their converts, but the Chinese Catholics were mostly neglected. Medical supplies were scarce but a sizeable number of doctors and nurses, mostly missionaries, were present.
American missionaries took over management of most necessities for life in the Legation Quarter, including food, water, sanitation, and health. MacDonald’s most important appointment was Methodist Missionary
as chief of the Fortifications Committee. Gamewell and his crew of "fighting parsons" were universally acclaimed for their defensive works surrounding the British Legation.
About three miles distant from the Legation Quarter a similar siege took place at the
or North Cathedral of the Roman Catholic Church. Thirty-three priests and nuns, 43 French and Italian soldiers, and more than 3,000 Chinese Christians held off the Chinese army and Boxers. There was no communication during the siege between the Beitang and the Legation Quarter.
For several days after June 20—the official beginning of the siege—neither the inmates of the Legation Quarter nor the Qing and Boxers outside it had any coherent plan for defense or attack. On the west were the
Muslim soldiers of Dong Fuxiang and on the east were units of the Peking Field Army. The overall commander of the Chinese forces was Ronglu—who was anti-Boxer and disapproved of the siege. Chinese policy equivocated between belligerence and conciliation during the 55-day siege. Several attempts by Ronglu to effect a cease-fire failed because of suspicions and misunderstandings on both sides.
Ronglu, childhood friend of the Empress and the reluctant commander of the Chinese forces pressing the siege. George S. Stuart Gallery of Historical Figures
The Chinese first attempted to extinguish the Quarter's defenders by fire. For several days at the beginning of the siege they set fires in the buildings around the British Legation. On June 23, most of the buildings of the , the national library of China, and its books (many irreplaceable) burned. Both sides blamed the other for its destruction. The Chinese then turned its attention to the Fu, the refuge for most of the Chinese Christians, and the domain of Lt. Col. , the most admired military officer in the siege. Shiba, with his small group of Japanese soldiers, mounted a skillful defense against the Chinese who advanced behind walls built ever-closer to the Japanese, gradually threatening to surround them in a vise-like grip. British soldiers were often detailed to reinforce the Japanese during attacks and all admired Shiba's work. The most desperate fighting took place near the French Legation, where 78 French and Austrians and 17 volunteers were under assault in convoluted urban terrain, in which the front lines were only 50 ft (15 m) from each other. The French also feared that Chinese
were digging tunnels for mines beneath their positions.
The Germans and the Americans occupied perhaps the most crucial of all defensive positions: the Tartar Wall. Holding the top of the 45 ft (14 m) tall and 40 ft (12 m) wide Wall was vital. If it fell to the Chinese, they would have an unobstructed field of fire into the Legation Quarter. The German barricades faced east on top of the wall and 400 yd (370 m) west were the west-facing American positions. The Chinese advanced toward both positions by building barricades ever-closer. It was a claustrophobic existence for the soldiers on the wall. "The men all feel they are in a trap," said the American commander, Capt. , "and simply await the hour of execution." Added to the daily advances of the Chinese were the nightly serenades of rifle and artillery fire and firecrackers designed to keep the defenders awake and alert. "From June 20 to July 17 we had nightly attacks," said a missionary woman. American Minister Conger said "that some of them, for furious firing, exceeded anything he experienced in the ." The hard-pressed Legation guards saw their numbers diminish daily with casualties.
The Chinese were divided on the prosecution of the siege. The anti-Boxer faction, headed by Rong Lu, and the anti-foreign faction, headed by , squabbled at the Chinese court. Cixi, the Dowager Empress, vacillated between the two. She declared a truce for negotiations on June 25, but it endured only a few hours. She declared a cease-fire on July 17 which lasted for most of the remainder of the siege. As a sign of goodwill, she sent food and supplies to the besieged. The disagreements among the Chinese occasionally resulted in altercations and violence between Boxers and soldiers and between different units of the Imperial army.
The most critical threat to the legations came in early July. On June 30 the Chinese forced the Germans off the Tartar Wall, leaving the US Marines alone in its defense. At the same time a Chinese barricade advanced to within a few feet of the American positions and it became clear that the Americans had to abandon the wall or force the Chinese to retreat. At 2:00 am on July 3 the defenders launched a counterattack against the Chinese barricade on the wall with 26 British, 15 Russians and 15 Americans under the command of American Capt. John T. Myers. As hoped, the attack caught the C about 20 of them were killed and the survivors expelled from the barricades. Two American marines were killed and Capt. Myers was wounded and spent the rest of the siege in the hospital. The capture of Chinese positions on the Wall was hailed as the "pivot of our destiny" by one of the besieged. The Chinese did not attempt to regain or advance their positions on the Tartar Wall for the remainder of the siege.
Edwin H. Conger, the American Minister to China
Sir Claude MacDonald said July 13 was the "most harassing day" of the siege. The Japanese and Italians in the Fu were driven back to their last defense line. While the Fu was under heavy attack the Chinese detonated a mine beneath the French Legation, destroying most of it, killing two soldiers and pushing the French and Austrians out of most of the French Legation. Frank Gamewell began digging bombproof shelters as a last refuge for the besieged. The end seemed near.
The next day, however, a conciliatory message was received from the Chinese, which raised hopes—dashed again on July 16 when the most capable British officer was killed and journalist
was wounded. However, American Minister Conger carried on a communication with the Chinese government and on July 17 firing died down on both sides and an armistice began. I nearly half of the legation guards were dead or wounded. The motivation on the Chinese side for the armistice was probably the knowledge that an allied force of 20,000 men had landed in China and retribution for the Boxers and the siege was at hand.
Beijing in 1900 was surrounded by high walls broken by many gates (men). The location of the Legation Quarter and of the armies of Japan, Russia, the U.S. and Great Britain on the morning of August 14 is shown on the map.
On July 28 the defenders of the Legations received their first message from the outside world in more than a month. A Chinese boy—a student of the missionary William Scott Ament—sneaked into the Legation Quarter with the news that a rescue army of the
100 mi (160 km) away and would advance shortly to Beijing. The news was hardly reassuring, as the besieged had been expecting an earlier rescue. The Chinese government also passed along inquiries about the welfare of the besieged from their governments. A British soldier suggested that an appropriate reply would be, "Not massacred yet."
After many relatively quiet days, the night of August 13, with the rescue army just 5 mi (8.0 km) outside the gates of Beijing, may have been the most difficult of the siege. The Chinese broke the truce with an artillery barrage of the British Legation and heavy fire in the Fu. However, the Chinese confined themselves to firing from a distance rather than mounting an assault until, at 2:00 am on August 14, the defenders heard from the east the sound of a machine gun, a sign that the rescue army was on the way. At 5:00 am came the sound of artillery outside the walls of Beijing.
Five national contingents advanced on the walls of Beijing on August 14: British, American, Japanese, Russian and French. Each had a gate in the Wall for its objective. The Japanese and Russians were delayed at their gates by Chinese resistance. The small French contingent got lost. The Americans scaled the walls rather than attempting to force their way through a fortified gate. However, it was the British who won the race to relieve the siege of the legations. They entered the city through an unguarded gate and proceeded with virtually no opposition. At 3:00 pm the British passed through a drainage ditch—the "water gate"—under the Tartar Wall. Sikh and Rajput soldiers from India and their British officers had the honor of being the first to enter the Legation Quarter. The Chinese armies ringing the legation quarter melted away. A short time later the British commander, Gen. , entered and was greeted by Sir Claude MacDonald dressed in "immaculate tennis flannels" and a crowd of cheering ladies in party dresses. The American troops, under Gen. , arrived at 5:00 pm. The commanding Muslim general, , and four cousins of his were killed in action against the foreign forces. After the battle was over, the Chinese Muslim forces guarded the
when she fled to
with the entire Imperial C general
assisted in guarding Cixi.
The survivors were united in declaring the miraculous nature of their survival. "I seek in vain some military reason for the failure of the Chinese to exterminate the foreigners," said an American military officer. Missionary Arthur Smith summed up the Chinese military performance. "Upon unnumbered occasions, had they been ready to make a sacrifice of a few hundred lives, they could have extinguished the defense [of the Legation Quarter] in an hour." However, the equivocation on the part of the Chinese to use their military assets decisively against the Legation Quarter does not deny the fact that combatants on both sides fought and died in large numbers. The foreign soldiers defending the Legation Quarter suffered heavy casualties. Of the 409 soldiers, 55 were killed and 135 wounded, a casualty rate of 46.5%. In addition, 13 civilians were killed and 24 wounded, mostly men who participated in the defense.
A small Japanese force of one officer and 24 sailors commanded by
distinguished itself defending the Fu and the Chinese Christians there. It suffered greater than 100% casualties. This was possible because many of the Japanese troops were wounded, entered into the casualty lists, then returned to the line of battle only to be wounded once more and again entered in the casualty lists. The French force of 57 men also suffered more than 100% casualties.
Chinese casualties are unknown, nor were deaths among the Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter recorded.[]
During the siege Sheng Xuanhuai and other provincial officials suggested the Qing court give
full diplomatic power to negotiate with foreign powers. Li Hongzhang telegraphed back to Sheng Xuanhuai on June 25, describing the war declaration a "false edict" (luanming). Later, the "" was reached by provincial officials as a consensus not to follow Empress Cixi’s declaration of war. Li Hongzhang ignored government orders to release his reserves, derailing the Chinese war effort.
Li Hongzhang used the siege as a political weapon against his rivals in Beijing, since he controlled the C he exaggerated and lied, claiming that Chinese forces committed atrocities and murder upon the foreigners and exterminated all of them. This information was sent to the Western world. He aimed to infuriate the Europeans against the Chinese forces in Beijing, and succeeded in spreading massive amounts of false information to the west. This false information spread by Li played a part in the postwar depredations of Western armies. For refusing to obey the Chinese government's orders and not sending his own troops to help the Chinese army at all during the Boxer Rebellion, Li Hongzhang was praised by the westerners. For his role in the Siege of the International Legations, he is criticized by the PRC official history and has only recently allow different interpretations through popular media such as TV series aired by the official CCTV.
The Empress Dowager and her court fled Beijing on August 15. She remained in exile in
province until 1902, when she was permitted by the foreign armies occupying Beijing to return to reoccupy the throne. For China, the Boxer Rebellion was a disaster but – ironically – turned out about as well as could be expected. China remained together as a single country, while prior to the Boxer Rebellion it seemed likely to be divided by the colonial powers. The Chinese government supported the Boxers, who otherwise might have turned anti-Qing and hastened the extinction of the dynasty, but was unsuccessful in killing the inmates of the Legations. Had the Chinese succeeded, the retribution the Western countries and Japan took might have been more severe. Ronglu later took credit for saving the besieged: "I was able to avert the crowning misfortune which would have resulted from the killing of the Foreign Ministers." Ronglu was being disingenuous, as his forces came very close to breaking the ability of the besieged to resist.
The Boxer movement disintegrated during the siege. Some Boxers were incorporated into the army but most probably returned to their homes in the countryside where they became targets for punitive expeditions by the foreign military forces occupying Beijing after the siege.
The military occupation of Beijing and much of northern China became an orgy of looting and violence in which foreign soldiers, diplomats, missionaries, and journalists participated, events that prompted widespread criticism in Western countries, including from . While the siege's relief was seen as a proof of the superiority of Western civilization, the sordid aftermath of the siege may have contributed to many people in the United States and Europe reevaluating the morality of forcing Western culture and religion on the Chinese.
's execution was demanded by the Alliance for his role, but he was only cashiered and sent home when the Empress Dowager refused to execute him.
In 1963 a film based on the events of the siege was released, , starring
as Major Matt Lewis,
as Baroness Natalie Ivanoff,
as Sir Arthur Robertson, and
as Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi.
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Fenn, Rev. Courtnay Hughes, "The American Marines in the Siege of Peking". The Independent. Dec 6, 2000
. The Siege at Peking. New York: Harper, 1959
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Martin, W.A.P. The Siege in Peking. New York:Fleming H. Revell, 1900
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Porter, Henry D. William Scott Ament: Missionary of the American Board to China. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1911
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Thompson, Larry Clinton. William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal Missionary. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009.
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Weale, B. L. (), Indiscreet Letters from Peking. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1907
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