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我的同学英语作文带翻译
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我的同学英语作文带翻译
First, I want to tell you something about my best friend and me. I have a friend called Dick. In some ways, we are the same. Both Dick and I are good at sports. We always go to library together to read because of the same hobby. So, we also study well all subjects. Reading books is important in our life .In some ways, we are different. Dick is a little taller and a lot stronger than me. I think it is because he does excise every day. For me, I just take excise three times a week. Dick likes going to concert, but I have no interest in it. In my free time, I always watch TV. That is really fun.
首先，我想告诉你一些关于我和我最好的朋友的事情。我有一个朋友叫迪克。在某些方面，我们是一样的。我和迪克都擅长体育。我们总是一起去图书馆看书，因为我们相同的爱好。所以我们所有的科目都学得很好。阅读书籍在我们的生活中是很重要的。在某些方面，我们又是不一样的。迪克比我高一点，但是比我强壮了很多。我觉得是因为他每天都锻炼而我每周才锻炼三次的原因。迪克喜欢去音乐会，可是我却没有兴趣。在我空闲的时候，我总是看电视。那真的很有趣。
篇二：2013中考英语作文背诵范文(带翻译)
一、Great changes in my hometown
More than twenty years ago, my hometown was just a small , old and poor town. Most of people were farmers. There were few factories. The people didn?t have enough food to eat and wore old clothes. They had a hard life .
Great changes have taken place in the past twenty years . The people have found a lot of ways of making money . Now there are many tall buildings . They are very beautiful . Roads are wide and clean . People can take buses or drive their own cars to go to work . Many people have cell phones and personal computers. People’s living conditions have improved a lot . Thanks to the government’s efforts . my hometown is becoming more and more beautiful . 一,在我的家乡发生了很大的变化
二十多年来,我的家乡只是个小,又老又穷镇。大多数人都是农民。有几个工厂。人们没有足够的食物吃,把旧衣服穿在身上。他们有一个艰苦的生活。
发生了巨大的变化,在过去的20年。人们已经发现很多的赚钱途径。现在有许多高大的建筑物。他们很漂亮。道路宽阔,又干净。人们可以搭公车或驾驶自己的汽车去上班。许多人有手机和个人电脑。人民的生活条件有了很大的进步。由于政府的努力。我的家乡正变得越来越美丽了。
二、Save the earth
How to protect the environment has become one of the biggest problems in the world .
Its our duty to protect our environment . No matter where we live , we should do something to keep our neighborhood clean and
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初中英语中考作文精选.doc 23页
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初中英语作文题库
（一） 初中学业水平测试练习（二）
初中生活即将结束，新的生活即将开启。回首往事，让我们感触颇多，因为我们的成长离不开老师的培养、父母的支持和同学的帮助，请以“we should say thanks to…”为题，用英语写一篇短文。
要求： 1.将题目补充完整，60—80词；
2.句子流畅，无语法错误；
3.文中不得出现真实的姓名和校名，否则以零分计算。
We should say thanks to my teachers
How time flies!My junior high school lives will come to end.
In the past three years,I have studied in a beautiful school which prodivedes me with a good study place.Teachers in my school also give me lots of help.Whenever I was in trouble,my teachers always stood around me to comfort me.They taught me how to be a good man and gave me the courage to face difficulties.They are my friends.So,I want to say thanks to my dear teachers.Thanks to them,I have grown up happily.I hope they will be healthy forever.
提示：在生活和学习中许多人是很重要的。在我们困难时，真诚地帮助我们，我们真地要感谢他们，我们要学会感恩。请你发挥想象以“The person that I want to thank most”为题写一篇短文。
The person that I want to thank most
In my life,Miss Zhou is one of the teachers that I love most.She is my third English teacher.She is of medium height and has long hair.She always wears a smile and is kind to us.She also teaches very well and makes the class lively.Whenver we make mistakes,she asks us to correct and do it again.My English used to be poor and I once wanted to give up learning English.Miss Zhou encouraged me to begin my new study.She said to me,“I believe you can do it”Now though I’m not the best student in English,I really have improved a lot.So the person that I want to thank most is Miss Zhou.
提示：假如你叫李红，即将结束初中阶段的学习生活，请你用英语写一封信，对老师和学校表示感谢和祝愿。
Dear Mr.Li,
Thank you so much for teaching me so well.You are very kind to me.During the last three years I have learnt a lot of knowledge from you .I’ll keep on studying hard as usual in the senior middle school.
Wish you success in the future teaching work.Wish you a healthy body for ever.And wish you a happy life in the future.And I also hope that everything will go well in our school!Best wishes for you and for our school.
正在加载中，请稍后...Manjusri: Origins, Role And Significance (Parts I & II)
Manjusri: Origins, Role And Significance (Parts I & II)
By Anthony Tribe (Dharmachari Anandajyoti)
I pay salutation to Ma~njugho.sa: by his favour the mind becomes bright.
'Saantideva[1]
Introduction
Ma~nju'srii is one of the best-known and most important of the bodhisattvas of Mahaayaana Buddhism and is especially associated with the wisdom of awakening. He is often depicted as a beautiful youth, in keeping with the notion of the sense of freshness and newness of such liberating awareness, and is seated cross-legged on a lotus-flower throne, attired in princely silks and ornaments. In his right hand, raised above his head, he wields the symbol most distinctively his, a flaming sword of wisdom that cuts through the ignorance which binds sentient beings to a cycle of suffering and unhappiness. In his left hand, at his heart, he holds a book, a volume of the Perfection of Wisdom, representing both the source and embodiment of his awakened understanding.
Ma~nju'srii's popularity spans almost two millenia, beginning with his appearance in early Mahaayaana suutras in the first or second centuries CE. His fame as a source of inspiration, teaching and protection and as a focus for devotion and meditation spread from India throughout the whole classical Mahaayaana Buddhist world, to China, Korea, Japan and Tibet. His popularity continues today, not only within traditional Buddhist communities but also in contemporary 'western' Mahaayaana Buddhist traditions. American, European and Australasian Buddhists visualise Ma~nju'srii, recite his name and depict his form as part of their practice, seeing these as effective means of developing the insightful awareness (j~naana) that is at the heart of the Mahaayaana Buddhist perspective.
This article examines the two topics of Ma~nju'srii's origins and his portrayal in non-tantric Mahaayaana literature. The rather complicated question of Ma~nju'srii's origins is not ever likely to be settled conclusively. Nonetheless, I argue that Brahmaa Sanatkumaara is more likely to have had some influence on Ma~nju'srii's make-up than other figures previously proposed.
Although the main features of Ma~nju'srii's portrayal in Mahaayaana literature are clear, the account can be only partial at present. A number of early Mahaayaana suutras featuring Ma~nju'srii, which survive only in Chinese, have yet to appear in European translation. A perhaps unexpected emphasis that emerges from the present review is the regularity with which Ma~nju'srii appears as the wielder of far-reaching, and often inconceivable, miraculous power.
In what follows I tread a difficult line in writing for both a scholarly audience and for those whose focus on Ma~nju'srii is primarily one of practice. I have tried to keep the body of the text relatively free from
nonetheless the second part may be initially more approachable for some. Since there is comparatively little material readily available on Ma~nju'srii & the most important monograph on him to date is in French in an academic journal (Lamotte, 1960) & part of my purpose in writing has been to make existing scholarship more widely known. Source references are supplied for those who wish to pursue topics further.
I.	Origins
It is not possible to give a straightforward account of the origins of Ma~nju'srii, unlike a number of figures in the Buddhist or, indeed, Hindu tradition. He shows no obvious development in status comparable with that seen, for instance, in the figure of Vajrapaa.ni, who first appears as a yak.sa attendant of the Buddha, later becoming a bodhisattva and finally a Buddha under the name of Vajradhara.[2] Ma~nju'srii does not appear in the Theravaada Pali canon or in any other non-Mahaayaana text. In the suutras of Mahaayaana Buddhism, Ma~nju'srii is found fully-formed as an advanced bodhisattva. Yet despite the lack of a clear ancestry, various influences have been perceived in his make-up and a number of theories proposed as to his origins.
i. Pa~nca'sikha
The French scholar Marcelle Lalou has pointed to a number of affinities between Ma~nju'srii and a celestial musician (Skt. gandharva) called Pa~nca'sikha, who appears in both Sanskrit and Pali texts.[3] Lalou argues that one such affinity is a similarity in meaning between the name Pa~nca'sikha and a term sometimes used to describe Ma~nju'srii's appearance, pa~ncaciiraka, "Possessing Five [Hair-]braids."[4] Pa~nca'sikha means "Five-Crests" and this is taken by Buddhaghosa to refer to a way of styling the hair. He says that Pa~nca'sikha owes his name to the fact that he wears his hair in five tresses or braids in the fashion of young men.[5] On this interpretation the name Pa~nca'sikha becomes a synonym of pa~ncaciiraka. However, "Five-Crests" does not necessarily refer to hair and Buddhaghosa's account should perhaps be treated with some caution. He could have been attempting to make sense of what was, for him, a puzzling name. Alternative expla for example, 'crest' ('sikha) might denote the crest or peak of a mountain and the name Pa~nca'sikha might therefore allude to Pa~nca'sikha's geographical origins. (Evidence for such an interpretation is discussed in the following section.) At the same time, it may be true that there evolved a tradition of Pa~nca'sikha wearing his hair as Buddhaghosa describes. The eighth-century author Vilaasavajra also glosses the word pa~nca'sikha as referring to five hair braids.[6]
Lalou points to another affinity between Ma~nju'srii and Pa~nca'sikha in the sphere of their qualities of voice and speech. In the Sakkapa~nha Sutta, Pa~nca'sikha acts as an intermediary between 'Sakra (ie. Indra), chief of the gods of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (P. Taavati.msa), and the Buddha.[7] 'Sakra wants to speak to the Buddha but feels he is not easy to approach, so he asks Pa~nca'sikha to put the Buddha in an amenable mood by playing and singing to him. This Pa~nca'sikha does and, as a result, the Buddha praises Pa~nca'sikha and in so doing reveals an aptitude for aesthetic appreciation:
The sound of your strings combines well with the sound of your song, Pa~nca'sikha, as does the sound of your song with the sound of your strings. Also, the sound of your strings does not dominate the sound of your song, Pa~nca'sikha, neither does the sound of your song [dominate] the sound of your strings.[8]
It is hardly surprising that Pa~nca'sikha, being a gandharva, is a good musician but here his singing or voice is praised as well. Ma~nju'srii, as is well-known, is renowned for his mellifluous speech, and many of his epithets and names refer to the qualities of his voice. Perhaps best-known of Ma~nju'srii's names is Ma~njugho.sa, "Sweet-V"[9] he is also known as Ma~njusvara,[10] which also means "Sweet-Voiced," and as Ma~njurava, "Of Sweet Sounds." His epithets include vaadiraaja, vaagii'svara and gii.spati, all meaning "Lord of Speech."
A third link between Ma~nju'srii and Pa~nca'sikha is that of youth. Pa~nca'sikha, as a god (deva), is both beautiful and perpetually young. Ma~nju'srii also tends to be envisaged in the form of a young man or youth, as is witnessed by his standard epithet kumaarabhuuta, which can mean both "being a youth" and "being a prince." It is not clear, however, that this affinity is of significance since Pa~nca'sikha is not portrayed as more youthful than other gods. Nevertheless, Lalou suggests that the popularity of both Pa~nca'sikha and Ma~nju'srii derives from a single mythic source, belief in a god who is eternally young. Whether or not this might be true for Pa~nca'sikha, in Ma~nju'srii's case such a proposal takes no account of his specifically Buddhist role as one of the most important bodhisattvas. No doubt youth would render Ma~nju'srii attractive and contribute to his appeal, but it is unlikely to have been the determining fact despite Ma~nju'srii's epithet kumaarabhuuta, youth is a characteristic shared by many figures in the Buddhist pantheon, especially bodhisattvas, not all of whom gained the popularity of Ma~nju'srii. Furthermore, in China, where Ma~nju'srii became particularly popular, especially in the T'ang period, he became renowned for appearing in the form of an old man or a beggar.[11]
Finally, Pa~nca'sikha, like Ma~nju'srii, appears in the role of interlocutor, questioning and receiving replies from the Buddha. In the Mahaagovinda Sutta, Pa~nca'sikha approaches the Buddha, who is staying at the Vulture's Peak, and recounts events that he has witnessed in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, including the sight of Brahmaa Sanatkumaara manifesting as himself (ie. as Pa~nca'sikha)![12] The same story is found in the Mahaavastu where there is a section at the end, not found in the Pali version, in which Pa~nca'sikha has the role of interlocutor.[13] This text depicts a closer relationship between 'Saakyamuni and Pa~nca'sikha than is found elsewhere, one which could be seen as paralleling or anticipating Ma~nju'srii's role as the major interlocutor in many Mahaayaana suutras.
Given these affinities in the areas of name, appearance, qualities and role, might Pa~nca'sikha be an earlier form of Ma~nju'srii? Such a theory has been proposed by David Snellgrove, who suggests that Pa~nca'sikha was initially called Pa~nca'sikha Ma~njugho.sa, where the term 'Ma~njugho.sa' is an epithet, referring to the quality of Pa~nca'sikha's voice.[14] Later, Snellgrove argues, the name became reversed, becoming Ma~njugho.sa Pa~nca'sikha, where 'Pa~nca'sikha' is now the epithet of a figure whose name is Ma~njugho.sa. By this account Ma~njugho.sa must have been Ma~nju'srii's original name, a claim which had been made earlier by Louis de La Vall?(C)e Poussin.[15] However, neither he nor Snellgrove give any reasons for this supposition nor do they cite any supporting evidence.
Snellgrove's account may seem plausible given the affinities between Pa~nca'sikha and Ma~nju'srii, but it is not free from difficulty. There is, firstly, a lack of textual evidence linking the names Ma~njugho.sa and Pa~nca'sikha. Snellgrove himself gives no textual support for his theory and as far as I have been able to ascertain, Pa~nca'sikha is never given the epithet Ma~njughosa in the Pali texts. Nevertheless, it may be that the king of the gandharva-s was so-called, at least on one occasion. A passage from the Diirghaagama, one of the Sanskrit recensions of the early Mainstream (non-Mahaayaana) Buddhist canon, describes the Himalayan mountain Gandhamaadana and states that,
Miao-yin (Ma~njugho.sa), king of the gandharva-s, surrounded by five hundred gandharva-s, lives there.[16]
However, since this passage survives only in Chinese translation, the name Ma~njugho.sa is a reconstruction, so it is possible that the original Sanskrit was different.[17]
A further difficulty in using this passage to sustain a link between Pa~nca'sikha and Ma~njugho.sa is that it refers to the king of the gandharva-s. There is no doubt that Pa~nca'sikha is a gandharva but it is not clear that he is king of the gandharva-s. He is is never referred to as such in the Pali texts.[18] Certain passages describe individuals being reborn as Pa~nca'sikha, which suggests that the name denoted an office & like that of ''Sakra', for the king of the gods & as much as a particular individual.[19] Sanskrit texts generally depict Pa~nca'sikha in the same way as the Pali texts do, as a well-known gandharva and as the name of an office.[20]
In the Sakkapa~nha Sutta Pa~nca'sikha himself refers to one Timbaru as king of the gandharva-s.[21] At the end of the sutta, 'Sakra rewards Pa~nca'sikha for his services in helping him speak with the Buddha by giving him Timbaru's daughter, Bhaddaa, with whom Pa~nca'sikha has fallen in love. 'Sakra also says that in the future Pa~nca'sikha shall be king of the gandharva-s, presumably because of his marriage to Bhaddaa.[22] This promise of 'Sakra, noted by Lalou,[23] may account for the tendency of writers to assume Pa~nca'sikha's kingship. Both Lamotte and John Brough so refer to him, though Lamotte cites no sources and implies that he is following Lalou, whereas Brough's article is unclear as to whether his source actually refers to Pa~nca'sikha as a king.[24] Lalou does cite two instances of Pa~nca'sikha being described as king of the gandharva-s & one in the tantric work, the Ma~nju'srii-muula-kalpa, "The Root Ordinance of Ma~nju'srii," and one in the suutra section of the Tibetan Kanjur & and I have noted another in the Dharmadhaatu-vaagii'svara-ma.n.dala of Abhayaakaragupta's Ni.spanna-yogaavali.[25] Such references, perhaps deriving their authority from the utterance of 'Sakra in the Sakkapa~nha Sutta, seem to be the exception rather than the rule, however. They can hardly be regarded as evidence from which one can safely conclude that it is Pa~nca'sikha who is named Miao-yin (possibly Ma~njugho.sa in Skt.) in the Chinese translation of the Diirghaagama quoted above.
Another difficulty concerns Snellgrove's claim that pa~nca'sikha is an epithet of Ma~nju'srii, or rather of his purportedly original name, Ma~njugho.sa.[26] Snellgrove himself offers no examples, and Lalou never suggests that pa~nca'sikha is found as one of his epithets in arguing her case for the affinity between Pa~nca'sikha and Ma~nju'srii. As Lalou points out, Ma~nju'srii does have the epithet pa~ncaciira, and a version of this, pa~ncaciira-kumaara, "youth with five hair-braids," is preserved in the Saadhana-maalaa for a number of his visualised forms.[27] In her study of Ma~nju'srii's iconography, Marie-Th?(C)r?¨se de Mallmann makes no mention of an epithet pa~nca'sikha. Though the term pa~nca'sikha does appear in association with Ma~nju'srii in the Ma~nju'srii-muula-kalpa, it is as the name of a symbolic hand gesture (mudraa) rather than as an epithet.[28]
In an important tantric work centred on Ma~nju'srii, the Naamasa.mgiiti, "The Chanting of Names," pa~nca'sikha occurs as one of the 'Names' (naama). Generally, the 'Names' of the Naamasa.mgiiti are taken to be those of Ma~nju'srii, who is to be understood in this context as the Knowledge-Being Ma~nju'srii (Ma~nju'srii-j~naanasattva) rather than the bodhisattva.[29] Verse 93 reads:
Crested, an ascetic, wit five- with five crests [of hair] (pa~nca'sikha); with five braids of hair for a crown.[30]
The commentator Vilaasavajra takes the term pa~nca'sikha here to refer to five hair braids and this gloss, which was noted earlier, makes good sense given the context of the rest of the verse.[31] Theoretically it would be possible to interpret pa~nca'sikha as a mudraa, though this seems unlikely to be the sense intended, and this may therefore count as an instance of pa~nca'sikha used as an epithet for a form of Ma~nju'srii, albeit a rarefied one. However, the 'Names' of the Naamasa.mgiiti include a wide range of terms that are not more usually associated with Ma~nju'srii. Thus, the existence of pa~nca'sikha as a 'Name' cannot be taken to imply that it is one of Ma~nju'srii's standard epithets. Equally, the Naamasa.mgiiti is a relatively late work, perhaps seventh century CE, and earlier examples of pa~nca'sikha as an epithet of Ma~nju'srii need to be found for Snellgrove's account to be tenable.
To summarise this rather complicated discussion, the relation between Ma~nju'srii and Pa~nca'sikha is at best tenuous. The affinities pointed to by Lalou are not as convincing as she would like them to be, and there is no real evidence that Ma~nju'srii as a figure derives from that of Pa~nca'sikha in the way that David Snellgrove suggests.
ii. Gandhamaadana
In the passage from the Diirghaagama quoted above, a mountain called Gandhamaadana was referred to as the home of the king of the gandharva-s, Miao-yin (possibly 'Ma~njugho.sa'). Gandhamaadana is part of a chain of Himalayan mountains which surround a lake known by the name Anavatapta in the Buddhist tradition and famous as the source of the rivers Ganges, Indus and Oxus. In the commentary to the Udaana the mountains and lake are itemised:
The lake Anavatapta is surrounded by five mountain peaks called, respectively, Sudar'sana, Citra, Kaala, Gandhamaadana, and Kailaasa.[32]
Thus Gandhamaadana is part of a distinctive five-peaked & pa~nca'sikha or pa~nca'siir.sa in Sanskrit & group of mountains. The association of the term pa~nca'sikha with the region where the king of the gandharva-s and his retinue are reputed to live might suggest that Pa~nca'sikha, being a celebrated gandharva, could derive his name from the geographical features of this area. The Indian tradition generally took the Himalayas to be the home of gandharva-s and Pa~nca'sikha is also said to frequent them.[33] In the Ma~njarii Jaataka of the Mahaavastu he visits a Himalayan hermit to persuade him to develop generosity,[34] and in the Mahaamaayuurii he is said to live in Kashmir, the north-western region of the Himalayas close to (or containing) the five mountain peaks surrounding lake Anavatapta.[35]
Ma~nju'srii is also associated with Gandhamaadana. In the short Ma~nju'srii-parinirvaa.na Suutra, which is discussed and translated into French by Lamotte,[36] he is described as visiting the Himalayas where he converts five hundred hermits (.r.si) to Buddhism. Some time later, Ma~nju'srii appears to enter final Nirvaa.na in a blaze of light and fire through his skill as an advanced bodhisattva. It is this event that gives the suutra its name.[37] His remains are taken to the summit of a certain "Perfume Mountain" where, it is said, he will be honoured by innumerable deva-s, naaga-s and yak.sa-s. Perfume Mountain is identified by Lamotte as Gandhamaadana, "[Mountain] Intoxicating with Perfumes."[38]
As Ma~nju'srii's popularity spread he came to be connected with mountains in other parts of the Buddhist world, notably Go's.r'nga in Khotan and Wu-t'ai shan, "Five-Terrace Mountain," in China.[39] Both Go's.r'nga and Wu-t'ai shan also have lakes nearby and the Wu-t'ai shan complex, as its name indicates, has five peaks. This double association with five-peaked mountains may be no more than coincidence, but if Ma~nju'srii was already known by the epithet pa~ncaciira, locations also associated with the number five could have been seen as appropriate to him. Alternatively, Wu-t'ai shan may have appeared as a suitable abode for Ma~nju'srii because of an earlier association with the five-peaked region of Mt. Gandhamaadana.
iii. Brahmaa & Brahmaa Sanatkumaara
A figure who may have had some influence on the make-up of Ma~nju'srii is the god Brahmaa, who in the Hindu tradition is well-known for his activities of world-creation. Richard Robinson has noted that Ma~nju'srii and Brahmaa share the epithet Vaagii'svara, "Lord of Speech."[40] Buddhist texts speak of 'Brahmaa-s' in the plural, referring to those who live in the highest of the realms of the gods, the Brahmaloka. The Pali Janavasabha Sutta describes the qualities of speech of a Brahmaa called Sanatkumaara, who is also a disciple of the Buddha. So that he can appear to the assembled gods of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, Brahmaa Sanatkumaara takes on the form of Pa~nca'sikha & as he does, as noted earlier, in the Mahaagovinda Sutta & and in this form, which is said to outshine the other gods in splendour, he proceeds to discourse on the Buddha's Dharma. The text describes his voice as "fluent, intelligible, sweet (ma~nju), audible, continuous, distinct, deep and resonant,"[41] and as one that communicates perfectly with the assembly but does not penetrate beyond it. One possessing a voice with these eight characteristics, the Sutta continues, is said to be 'Brahmaa-voiced' (brahmassara).[42]
Brahmaa Sanatkumaara's great qualities of voice and speech are not his only link with Ma~nju'srii. His name Sanat-kumaara, meaning "Forever-a-youth," is almost identical to Ma~nju'srii's standard epithet, kumaarabhuuta, "Being a youth." One reason that Brahmaa Sanatkumaara is 'Forever-a-youth' is that, like all the gods, he never grows old. Buddhaghosa provides a more individual reason. In a former birth, Brahmaa Sanatkumaara practised meditation while still a boy with his hair tied in five knots (pa~ncacuu??a) (in the fashion of boys) and was reborn into the Brahma world with his meditative state (jhaana) intact.[43] That Ma~nju'srii also wears his hair in the manner of a youth is suggested by his epithet kumaarabhuuta; it is made explicit by the description pa~ncaciiraka, "Having Five Braids [of Hair]," discussed above.
As a candidate for having an influence in the make-up of Ma~nju'srii, the figure of Brahmaa Sanatkumaara has at least as good a claim as Pa~nca'sikha. The affinity of the names Sanatkumaara and Kumaarabhuuta is no interpretation is required as it is with pa~nca'sikha and pa~ncaciiraka. Brahmaa Sanatkumaara's qualities of speech are more apparent and consonant with Ma~nju'srii's than are Pa~nca'sikha's. Furthermore, in the Janavasabha Sutta he is depicted not only as a disciple of the Buddha but as one who teaches the Dharma, acting in effect as the Buddha's spokesman just as Ma~nju'srii does. Also like Ma~nju'srii, he is able to employ magical powers in order to make his teaching more effective. The Janavasabha Sutta describes him as creating thirty-three forms of himself, one sitting at the couch each form talks in such a way that each god thinks that only the figure of Brahmaa Sanatkumaara near at hand is speaking.[44] Sanatkumaara is associated with wisdom elsewhere. In the Pali Sa.myutta Nikaaya he is referred to as the author of a verse praising wisdom (vijjaa)[45] and in the braahmanical Chaandogya Upani.sad (bk. 7) he teaches Naarada the highest truth.
In Hindu Pur??&ic literature, Brahmaa's consort is said to be the goddess Sarasvatii, patroness of the arts and of learning, and in some Buddhist contexts she is found as Ma~nju'srii's consort. Sarasvatii was an important figure in the Vedic period well before her connection with Brahmaa. As the goddess of the river along which Vedic learning developed, she became the inspirer of eloquence and was known as Vaagdevii, "Goddess of Speech." In the post-Vedic period Sarasvatii's role was not fixed: sometimes she is depicted as Vi.s.nu's consort, sometimes as Brahmaa's daughter as well as his consort. It is not clear, therefore, that her role as Ma~nju'srii's consort is calqued on her relationship with Brahmaa. Certainly, given the importance of speech in Ma~nju'srii's 'personality,' Sarasvatii would be an obvious choice as a consort. It should also be noted that Sarasvatii only appears as Ma~nju'srii's consort within the context of a later (and tantric) period of Buddhism, so that if there is any influence from Brahmaa here it comes after the formation of Ma~nju'srii's defining role and status as the bodhisattva of wisdom.[46]
iv. Kaarttikeya
As well as suggesting that Ma~nju'srii has an affinity with Pa~nca'sikha, Lalou argues that he also has one with the Hindu god Kaarttikeya.[47] The Hariva.msa, traditionally taken as an appendix to the Mahaabharata and concerned with the glorification of Vi.s.nu and K.r.s.na, identifies Brahmaa Sanatkumaara with Kaarttikeya, also known as Skanda and Kumaara. In the Ma~nju'srii-muulakalpa there is a description of a Kaarttikeya-Ma~nju'srii, to be depicted, according to the text, sitting upon a peacock, the usual throne of Kaarttikeya.[48] The same work contains a mantra called Kaarttikeya-Ma~nju'srii, extolled as being particular to Ma~nju'srii.[49] Ma~nju'srii is also given the epithet Kumaara, which Lalou takes as a borrowing from Kaarttikeya. Lalou concludes that Ma~nju'srii, "appears very much to be the Mahaayaanist equivalent of the brahmanical Kaarttikeya."[50]
It is not clear whether Lalou is suggesting that Kaarttikeya is a prototype or antecedent of Ma~nju'srii. If the latter, her source references are rather too late: the Hariva.msa is usually dated to 300-500 CE[51] and the figure of Ma~nju'srii is well established as a bodhisattva in Mahaayaana suutras translated into Chinese in the second century CE by Lokak.sema. As for the Ma~nju'srii-muulakalpa, it is a composite work, which as it stands cannot be earlier than the 8th century since it includes a history of Buddhism down to the beginning of the Paala dynasty.[52] However, parts of it are very likely to be older and Wayman believes that some could go back to the 4th century.[53] The Ma~nju'srii-muulakalpa certainly shows signs of being influenced by the braahmanical tradition, yet the composition of this text must post-date the period during which Ma~nju'srii appeared. The Ma~nju'srii-muulakalpa is also a tantric text, as the reference to a Kaarttikeya-Ma~nju'srii mantra indicates, and it is likely that, for whatever reason, Kaarttikeya-Ma~nju'srii represents a grafting of extraneous material onto a pre-existing figure.
If, on the other hand, Lalou is suggesting that Kaarttikeya parallels Ma~nju'srii in terms of make-up or 'personality', again evidence is lacking. Kaarttikeya has very little in common with Ma~nju'srii. The son of Agni, fostered by the K.rttikaas (the Pleiades, from whom his name, a patronymic, derives), Kaarttikeya becomes the chief battle god of the Hindu pantheon.[54] Military exploits seem to be his major interest and although Ma~nju'srii is given, at least in the Ma~nju'srii-muulakalpa, the epithet Kumaara, in Kaarttikeya's case this appears to refer to his bachelorhood, a state resulting, according to most accounts, from his dislike of women. The common epithet Kumaara may help account both for the identification of Brahmaa Sanatkumaara with Kaarttikeya as well as for the evolution of a form of Ma~nju'srii & dubbed Kaarttikeya-Ma~nju'srii. However, a shared epithet is insufficient a basis upon which to establish a structural parallel.
Benoytosh Bhattacharyya[55] puts forward the thesis that Ma~nju'srii was a great man who brought civilization to Nepal from China and was subsequently deified. His textual source for this is the Svaya.mbhuu Puraa.na,[56] which contains a legend that Ma~nju'srii came from China and created Nepal, at that time just the Kathmandu valley, by draining the lake that previously covered it. According to the legend, Ma~nju'srii was living in China on Mount Pa~nca'siir.sa ("Five-Peak") with a number of disciples when by supernormal means he gained the knowledge that the Self-Existent (svaya.mbhuu) AAdibuddha had manifested in Nepal on a hill near a lake called Kaalii (kaalihrada). Ma~nju'srii travels to Nepal with his disciples to pay homage to the AAdibuddha but discovers on arrival that the place where he has manifested is almost inaccessible because of the surrounding naaga-infested lake. Using the power of his sword, Ma~nju'srii cuts six valleys into the mountain range at the south of the lake, allowing it to drain away. At the same time he excavates a site for another lake, in which the naaga-s of Kaaliihrada are invited to take up residence. He then builds a temple for the AAdibuddha (on present-day Svayambhunath Hill) and makes a residence for himself nearby.[57] After creating a king for the newly-formed land of Nepal from among his followers Ma~nju'srii returns to China where he soon becomes a divine bodhisattva, leaving his material body behind.[58]
What is to be made of Bhattacharyya's interpretation of this material? Firstly the Svaya.mbhuu Puraa.na is not an early work: Winternitz has suggested that it may not predate the 16th century CE.[59] Though the legendary material concerning Ma~nju'srii may of course be earlier, one of its central terms, svaya.mbhuu, "'self-existent," the name of the Buddha whose manifestation precipitated Ma~nju'srii's visit to Nepal, would hardly be in use before the 6th century.[60] As they stand, therefore, the legends must be more recent than references to Ma~nju'srii found in suutras that can be dated by their translation into Chinese. Bhattacharyya here uses his source material rather uncritically. This is coupled, perhaps, with a predisposition to see bodhisattvas as deified humans and to read legends as elaborated and magicalised accounts of human happenings.
This account of Ma~nju'srii's origins is also rendered untenable by the work of John Brough,[61] who shows that much of this legendary material concerning Nepal almost certainly originated in Khotan and was later attached to Nepal by Tibetans, possibly from about the 10th century CE. Brough illustrates in considerable detail how legends concerning Khotan parallel those dealing with Nepal. Two instances are particularly striking: firstly, the country of Khotan is also created by the draining of a lake. The Go's.r'nga Vyaakara.na recounts that 'Saakyamuni arrives at the hill of Go's.r'nga, and seeing a lake asks 'Saariputra and Vai'sraavana to give the land borders. This they do, using respectively a monk's staff and a lance, by draining the lake and transferring it and its inhabitants to another position nearby. Secondly, the same text recounts that Ma~nju'srii gave his special blessing and protection to a site on the hill Go's.r'nga upon which a monastery would later arise. Go's.r'nga was the chief centre of Buddhism in Khotan, as Svaya.mbhuu Hill was in the Kathmandu valley. Brough gives a number of reasons why Khotan should have priority as the provenance for these legends. There is not the space to detail them here, except to mention that the Svaya.mbhuu Puraa.na lists Go's.r'nga as an earlier name of Svaya.mbhuu Hill. Brough suggests that the reason why this cycle of legends should be transferred to Nepal may be connected with the name Li. Li-Yul was the old Tibetan name for Khotan ('yul' means 'land'), but after its disappearance as an independent kingdom there seems to have arisen some uncertainty about its location. By the time of the compilation of the Tibetan Kanjur, Li-Yul had become identified with Nepal. The legends associated with the land of Li could then become attached to Nepal and the Nepalese may have adopted these traditions as their own. Finally, the element in the Nepalese legend that tells of Ma~nju'srii coming from China could have come from China itself or even from India, as by the 7th century CE Indians thought of Ma~nju'srii as residing in China.[62]
In summary, Ma~nju'srii's origins as a figure remain obscure, though his appearance in early Mahaayaana suutras indicates that they are probably Indian. His affinities with the gandharva Pa~nca'sikha are not as striking or as conclusive as Lalou and others suggest. The figure of Brahmaa Sanatkumaara, on the other hand, displays a rather more convincing kinship with Ma~nju'srii across a range of factors including name, appearance, role and associated qualities. An input from Kaarttikeya seems very doubtful, and the suggestion that Ma~nju'srii is a deified human from China is both historically and critically naive. Geographically, Ma~nju'srii has some association with Mount Gandhamaadana and there remains a possibility that the five-peaked range of which the mountain is a part may have influenced his subsequent connection with Wu-t'ai shan, "Five-Terrace Mountain," in China.
To say that Ma~nju'srii's origins as a figure are probably Indian is not, of course, to say that the origins of a cult of Ma~nju'srii are Indian. The geographical locus or loci in which a figure becomes popular may be far from where that figure itself originates.[63] Whether or not there was any significant non-Buddhist contribution in the process of Ma~nju'srii's birth, he remains, as Louis de la Vall?(C)e Poussin has remarked, "an entirely Buddhist personage in definition if not in origin."[64] The extent to which this is true will become clear when we turn to Ma~nju'srii's role in the literature of Mahaayaana Buddhism.
II.	Ma~nju'srii's Role in Mahaayaana Literature
[Ma~njugho.sa&]
	Who calms the flames of ambitions for one's own pleasure,
		with the waters of long-cultivated compassion,
	Who cuts the net of imaginative fabrications,
		by seeing the reality of the profound as it is.
							&Tsong kha pa.[65]
Given his prominence as a bodhisattva it is not surprising that there is a wealth of material in Mahaayaana literature concerning Ma~nju'srii. I have structured the following account by separating discussion of Ma~nju'srii's differing functions from that of his status. The two are, of course, closely connected: Ma~nju'srii's status allows him to act in particular ways. I should note that this examination of Ma~nju'srii's role in Mahaayaana literature is largely restricted to his depiction in Mahaayaana suutras. Except for the occasional reference, I do not deal with his role in Buddhist tantric literature.
1.	Functions
i. Interlocutor and Spokesman
Ma~nju'srii has a role as interlocutor in many Mahaayaana suutras, particularly on questions dealing with wisdom and ultimate truth. He has this function in both the Saddharma-pu.n.dariika Suutra, "The Lotus of the True Teaching" (hereafter Lotus Suutra), and the Vimalakiirti-nirde'sa, "The Teaching of Vimalakiirti," both early suutras.
In the opening of the Lotus Suutra, Ma~nju'srii is enumerated first, before Avalokite'svara, in the assembly of bodhisattvas.[66] He knows what the Buddha is about to do, whereas Maitreya does not. The Buddha, deep in meditation, has emitted a ray of light illuminating eighteen thousand Buddha-lands together with their presiding Buddhas. Maitreya, knowing that Ma~nju'srii has served innumerable Buddhas in the past and so may have witnessed such events before, asks him about their significance. Ma~nju'srii tells him they indicate that the Buddha is about to preach the Lotus Suutra itself.[67]
In the initial chapters of the Lotus Suutra 'Saariputra, the early disciple of 'Saakyamuni particularly associated with wisdom, is the Buddha' not until chapters 12 and 14 does Ma~nju'srii appear in this role.[68] In some respects Ma~nju'srii can be seen as 'Saariputra's Mahaayaana equivalent & the bodhisattva foremost in wisdom. As a result, 'Saariputra's role shifts, so that he is often depicted in Mahaayaana suutras as embodying wisdom that is limited in scope and depth. For example, in chapter 12 of the Lotus Suutra a young naaga princess appears, revealed as having speedily become an irreversible bodhisattva thanks to Ma~nju'srii's teaching. 'Saariputra is astounded and doubts that such a thing could have occurred. How is such quick progress possible, especially in a female body? By way of an answer the princess, transforming herself into a male form, travels to another world-sphere and straightaway becomes enlightened for all to see.[69]
In the Vimalakiirti-nirde'sa, Ma~nju'srii's role as interlocutor is more prominent. He is the only bodhisattva prepared to enquire after the lay bodhisattva Vimalakiirti's apparent ill-health, and their subsequent dialogue forms the core of the suutra.[70] Again, 'Saariputra is portrayed as possessing an overly narrow perspective and, because of this, gentle fun is made of him on a number of occasions.[71]
The role of being an interlocutor shades into that of becoming 'Saakyamuni's spokesman and articulator of teachings in his own right. Whereas in chapter 14 of the Lotus Suutra Ma~nju'srii does no more than ask the Buddha the opening question whose answer takes up the rest of the chapter, in the Vimalakiirti-nirde'sa he not only questions Vimalakiirti closely on subjects such as emptiness and compassion but also speaks at some length himself:
Then, the Licchavi Vimalakiirti said to the crown prince Ma~nju'srii, "Ma~nju'srii, what is the 'family of the Tathaagatas'?"
Ma~nju'srii replied, "Noble sir, the family of the Tathaagatas consists of ignorance and the
of lust, hate, of the four misapprehensions, of the five obscurations, of the six media of sense, of the seven abodes of consciousness, of the eight false paths, of the nine causes of irritation, of the paths of ten sins. Such is the family of the Tathaagatas. In short, noble sir, the sixty-two kinds of convictions constitute the family of the Tathaagatas!"
Vimalakiirti: Ma~nju'srii, with what in mind do you say so?
Ma~nju'srii: Noble sir, one who stays in the fixed determination of the vision of the uncreated is not capable of conceiving the spirit of unexcelled perfect enlightenment. However, one who lives among created things, in the mines of passions, without seeing any truth, is indeed capable of conceiving the spirit of unexcelled perfect enlightenment.
Noble sir, flowers like the blue lotus, the red lotus, the white lotus, the water lily, and the moon lily do not grow on the dry ground in the wilderness, but do grow in the swamps and mud banks. Just so, the Buddha-qualities do not grow in living beings certainly destined for the uncreated but do grow in those living beings who are like swamps and mud banks of passions. Likewise, as seeds do not grow in the sky but do grow in the earth, so the Buddha-qualities do not grow in those determined for the absolute but do grow in those who conceive the spirit of enlightenment, after having produced a Sumeru-like mountain of egoistic views.
Noble sir, through these considerations can one understand that all passions constitute the family of the Tathaagatas. For example, noble sir, without going out into the great ocean, it is impossible to find precious, priceless pearls. Likewise, without going into the ocean of passions, it is impossible to obtain the mind of omniscience.[72]
In works such as Sapta'satikaa Praj~naapaaramitaa, "The Perfection of Wisdom in 700 Lines," and the Ma~nju'srii-buddhak.setra-gu.navyuuha Suutra, "The Suutra on the Array of Qualities of Ma~nju'srii's Buddha-Land," and also the Acintya-buddhavi.saya-nirde'sa, "The Teaching of the Inconceivable Scope of Buddha[hood],"[73] Ma~nju'srii fully functions as 'Saakyamuni's spokesman. This is possible because of his status. Insofar as he is a bodhisattva already perfect in wisdom he can act fully on behalf of his presiding Buddha. Thus in the Acintya-buddhavi.saya-nirde'sa the Buddha asks Ma~nju'srii to teach:
At that time, Bodhisattva-Mahaasattva Ma~nju'srii and the god Sugu.na were both present among the assembly. The World-Honoured One told Ma~nju'srii, "You should explain the profound state of Buddhahood for the celestial beings and the Bodhisattvas of this assembly."[74]
In the Sapta'satikaa Praj~naapaaramitaa Ma~nju'srii elaborates the meaning of Perfect Wisdom:
The Lord: Do you, Ma~nju'srii, reflect on the dharmas of a Buddha?
Ma~nju'srii: No indeed, O Lord. If I could see the specific accomplishment of the dharmas of a Buddha, then I would reflect on them. But the development of perfect wisdom is not set up through discriminating any dharma and saying that "these are the dharmas of ordinary people, these are the dharmas of Disciples, these are the dharmas of Pratyekabuddhas, these the dharmas of fully enlightened Buddhas". The son of good family who has given himself up to the Yoga of the development of perfect wisdom does just not apprehend that dharma which would allow him to describe these dharmas as dharmas of ordinary people, or as dharmas of those in training, or as dharmas of the adepts, or as dharmas of fully enlightened Buddhas. Because as absolutely non-existent I do not review those dharmas. Such a development, O Lord, is a development of perfect wisdom. & And again, O Lord, the development of perfect wisdom neither benefits nor injures any dharma. For perfect wisdom, when developed, is not a donor of the dharmas of a Buddha, nor an eliminator of the dharmas of an ordinary person. Just that, O Lord, is the development of perfect wisdom where there is neither the stopping of the dharmas of an ordinary person nor the acquisition of the dharmas of a Buddha.
The Lord: Well said, well said, Ma~nju'srii, you who demonstrate this dharma which is so deep.[75]
Another suutra in which Ma~nju'srii is depicted teaching the Perfection of Wisdom is the Su.s.thitamati-devaputra-parip.rcchaa, "The Questions of the god Su.s.thitamati."[76] Here, in a dialogue between Su.s.thitamati and Ma~nju'srii, Su.s.thitamati asks if he can join Ma~nju'srii so that they might together cultivate pure conduct. Ma~nju'srii replies:
"Son of heaven, now, if you can take the lives of all sentient beings without using a knife, a cudgel, a large stick, or a stone, I will cultivate pure conduct with you."
Su.s.thitamati asked, "Great sage, why do you say this?"
Ma~nju'srii answered, "Son of heaven, regarding sentient beings, what do you think of them?'
Su.s.thitamati answered, "I think that sentient beings and all other dharmas are nothing but names and are all concocted by thoughts."
Ma~nju'srii said, "Son of heaven, I therefore say that now you should kill the thoughts of a self, of a personal identity, of a sentient being, and of a life, eliminating the thoughts of even these names. You should kill in this way."
Su.s.thitamati asked, "Great sage, what instrument should one use to kill [in this way]?"
Ma~nju'srii answered, "Son of heaven, I always kill with the sharp knife of wisdom. In the act of killing, one should hold the sharp knife of wisdom and kill in such a manner as to have no thought of holding the knife or of killing. Son of heaven, in this way, you should know well that to kill the thoughts of a self and a sentient being is to kill all sentient beings truly. [If you can do that,] I will give you permission to cultivate pure conduct."[77]
This dialogue leads into the climax of the suutra, in which the Buddha employs Ma~nju'srii in a vivid piece of dramatic action which reiterates the theme of killing. Within the narrative structure of the suutra it has the effect of triggering the realisation of the Non-arising of Dharmas in a group of bodhisattvas who have been held back by being unable to forget their past negative actions.
At that time, in order to rid those five hundred bodhisattvas of mental discrimination, the World-Honoured One inspired Ma~nju'srii with
as a result, Ma~nju'srii rose from his seat, adjusted his robe, bared his right shoulder, and holding a sharp sword in hand, advanced straight toward the World-Honoured One to kill him.
Hurriedly, the Buddha said to Ma~nju'srii, "Stop, stop! Do not do the wrong thing. Do not kill me in this way. If you must kill me, you should first know the best way to do so. Why? Because, Ma~nju'srii, from the beginning there is no self, no others, as soon as one perceives in his mind the [non-]existence of an ego and a personal identity, and this is called killing."[78]
The Su.s.thitamati-devaputra-parip.rcchaa may well be source for the iconographic depiction of Ma~nju'srii with a sword (of wisdom) & which he holds or which rests on a lotus blossom that he holds. I know of no earlier reference that associates Ma~nju'srii with a sword. The legend in the Svaya.mbhuu Puraa.na of Ma~nju'srii using his sword to drain the lake covering the Kathmandu valley must be later. That story assumes that Ma~nju' the Su.s.thitamati-devaputra-parip.rcchaa gives a story that accounts for him holding one.
Ma~nju'srii does not appear in what is usually regarded as the earliest Perfection of Wisdom suutra, the A.s.tasaahasrikaa Praj~naapaaramitaa Suutra, "The Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines," (hereafter A.s.ta). In the early part of the A.s.ta, however, no bodhisattvas are mentioned. 'Saakyamuni is attended by monks, with Subhuti and 'Saariputra among the principal interlocutors. In the Pa~ncavi.m'satisaahasrikaa Praj~naapaaramitaa, "The Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines," and the 'Satasaahasrikaa Praj~naapaaramitaa, "The Perfection of Wisdom in 100,000 Lines," both placed by Conze in the second phase of the development of the Perfection of Wisdom literature (approx. 100&300 CE), Ma~nju'srii is still only mentioned in passing.[79] It is not until the Sapta'satikaa Praj~naapaaramitaa, cited above and given a date of composition of about 450 CE by Conze, that Ma~nju'srii has a speaking role.[80]
As the bodhisattva of wisdom, Ma~nju'srii's low profile in the earlier major Perfection of Wisdom suutras is perhaps rather surprising. Yet to conclude that Ma~nju'srii is unimportant in early Perfection of Wisdom literature as a whole may be premature. Although he does not appear in the A.s.ta, he has active and important role in the Ajaata'satru-kauk.rtya-vinodana Suutra, "The Suutra on the Dispelling of Ajaata'satru's Misdeeds," a work written from a Perfection of Wisdom perspective. Here Ma~nju'srii's great magical power is extolled and exemplified, and he is said to have helped the Buddha on his way to awakening in the past. This suutra is known to have been translated into Chinese by Lokak.sema in the latter half of the second century CE (T. 626), making it one of the earlier Mahaayaana suutras.[81] (For further discussion of the Ajaata'satru-kauk.rtya-vinodana see Part II 2.i, below.)
ii. Converter of Beings to the Buddhist Dharma
Though Ma~nju'srii is characteristically found discoursing on the emptiness of phenomena and stressing that on the ultimate level (paramaartha-satya) no-one saves anyone, a number of suutras nonetheless testify to Ma~nju'srii's compassionate activity. In chapter 12 of the Lotus Suutra Ma~nju'srii is recounted as having visited the underwater palace of Saagara, king of the naaga-s.[82] A bodhisattva present in the assembly, Praj~naakuu.ta, asks Ma~nju'srii how many beings he has converted there. "The number it is incalculable", he replies, at which point,
&numberless bodhisattvas, seated on jewelled lotus blossoms, welled up out of the sea and went to Mount G.rdhrakuu.ta where they rested in mid-air. These bodhisattvas had all been converted and conveyed to salvation by Ma~nju'srii, all had perfected bodhisattva-conduct, and all were discussing together the six paaramitaa-s.[83]
It transpires that it is the Lotus Suutra that Ma~nju'srii has been teaching to the naaga-s and that of all those he has taught it is the naaga king's daughter who has made the best progress, the veracity of which 'Saariputra questions, as mentioned above.
A second instance which gives an example of Ma~nju'srii's activity as a converter of beings and which connects him with naaga-s is found in the Ga.n.davyuuha Suutra. At the opening of the suutra Ma~nju'srii travels to the human realm, coming to 'a great city in the south named Dhanyaakara.' He stays in the forest outside the city at a shrine built by past Buddhas where he is visited by millions of naaga-s who have left the ocean in order to hear the Dharma. As a result of Ma~nju'srii's teaching they cease to want to be naaga-s and, desiring the qualities of Buddhahood, are reborn either as gods or human beings, several thousand becoming irreversible bodhisattvas.[84]
In the Ratnakaara.n.da Suutra there is an account of Ma~nju'srii converting followers of the Jain teacher Satyaka Nirgranthaputra.[85] Satyaka is described as staying at Vai'saali with a large number of disciples whom the monk Puur.na has unsuccessfully attempted to convert to Buddhism. Taking up the challenge, Ma~nju'srii adopts a different stratagem. Using his magical powers, he creates five hundred (non-Buddhist) wanderers and, posing as their teacher and leader, goes with them to Satyaka. They all prostrate before him and ask to become his pupils, saying they have heard his praises from afar. By means of this subterfuge Ma~nju'srii and his 'disciples' enter Satyaka's camp and are able to work on gaining the confidence of his followers. When the time is ripe Ma~nju'srii expounds the Dharma to them and his words are so effective that five hundred of them experience the opening of the Dharma-Eye and eight thousand others generate the Awakening Mind (bodhicitta). At this key point Ma~nju'srii's five hundred 'disciples' fall to the ground and prostrate with a cry of "Salutation to the Buddha, Salutation to the Buddha". This ruse carries the day and the remaining Jains follow suit, also prostrating and crying "Salutation to the Buddha"![86]
Ma~nju'srii's psychic powers as a high-level bodhisattva are thus pressed into service in his work of converting beings to Buddhism. A further and more dramatic instance of this is seen in the Ma~nju'srii-parinirvaa.na Suutra, a suutra that, apparently at least, is not about Ma~nju'srii's actual parinirvaa.na but one 'performed' by him out of compassion for living beings.[87] At the opening of the suutra the Buddha emits a ray of light that illuminates and transforms Ma~nju'srii's dwelling place. Ma~nju'srii then appears in the assembly of the Buddha, attended by the spontaneous appearance of golden lotus flowers from the fingers and palms of his hands as he joins them in salutation. Ma~nju'srii throws the flowers towards the Buddha and they transform into a huge jewel-parasol within which appear innumerable Buddhas and bodhisattvas from throughout the different regions of space. The bodhisattva Bhadrapaala asks the Buddha about Ma~nju'srii:
"Fortunate One, this Ma~nju'srii, Prince of the Dharma, has already served hundreds of thousands of Buddhas and here, in the Sahaa world, he does the work of the Buddha and manifests his miraculous power in the ten regions. After how many aeons will he enter Parinirvaa.na?"
The Buddha replied to Bhadrapaala, "Ma~nju'srii has great friendliness and great compassion& He dwells in the meditation (samaadhi) of the Heroic Progress ('suura'ngama) and by the power of this meditation he manifests at will, in the ten regions, the birth, going forth, enlightenment, final enlightenment and leaving of relics [of a Buddha]. All this is [performed] for the good of living beings. This worthy man stays for a long time in the [meditation called] Heroic Progress.
Four hundred and fifty years after the awakening of the Buddha he will go to Mount Himavat where he will preach to five hundred hermits, expounding the twelve kinds of sacred text. He will convert and ripen these five hundred hermits as a result of which they will become irreversible bodhisattvas& [Then] he will return to the country of his birth, flying through the air.
There, in a wild marsh, seated under a Banyan tree with his legs crossed, he enters the Heroic Progress meditation and all the pores of his skin emit rays of golden light as a result of the strength of his samaadhi. This light illuminates beings susceptible to being converted in the worlds of the ten directions. Each of the five hundred hermits sees fire being emitted from the pores of their skin.
Ma~nju'srii's body then becomes like a mountain of gold. His height is six arm- he is adorned with an aureole of light, surrounding him equally. Within this aureole can be seen five hundred [magically] created Buddhas, each with an entourage of five [magically] created bodhisattvas. Ma~nju'srii's head-dress is adorned with the precious jewel called 'Sakraabhilagna, which has five hundred different colours. In each of these colours there appears the sun and moon, the stars, the palaces of the gods and naaga-s and all the marvels of the world. Between his eye-brows is a white tuft of hair that turns to the right. [Magically] created Buddhas appear [from this] and enter the net of light. All of their bodies shine and they are su within each of these flames are five precious jewels [and] each of these precious jewels is flaming and many-coloured. Within these colours appear [magically] created Buddhas and bodhisattvas, im in their left hands they hold alms- in their right hands they raise Mahaayaana scriptures."[88]
The flames and lights of this vision also appear to constitute an act of self-cremation.[89] When everything dies down only a beryl statue covered in miraculous marks remains, itself containing a Buddha-image made of gold at its heart. Not surprisingly, the Buddha says to Bhadrapaala, "This Ma~nju'srii possesses vast supernatural powers and an immense power of transformation, escaping all description".
In the Ma~nju'srii-vikrii.dita Suutra Ma~nju'srii converts a prostitute by taking on the guise of a handsome young man.[90] This bodhisattva-activity contrasts with chapter 14 of the Lotus Suutra where the Buddha answers Ma~nju'srii's question concerning the behaviour appropriate for a bodhisattva. The Buddha's reply is largely a reiteration of the essentials of the monastic discipline (vinaya). There is a list of people with whom he & despite the events of chapter 12 the bodhisattva here is very much male[91] & should not become familiar. The bodhisattva should keep away from women:
Not even for Dharma's sake does he become familiar or close. How much the less for anything else![92]
There is also a passage which enjoins the bodhisattva not to approach Jain monks with familiarity.[93]
The example from the Ma~nju'srii-vikrii.dita Suutra illustrates the tension that sometimes exists between the pursuit of compassionate activity (upaayakau'salya) by the bodhisattva and the strict following of the precepts. There is, of course, precedent for Ma~nju'srii's conversion of the prostitute. Vimalakiirti engages in a wide range of worldly activity out of compassion in the Vimalakiirti-nirde'sa. In the 'Suura'ngama-samaadhi Suutra the aptly-named bodhisattva Maaragocaraanupalipta, "Undefiled by Maara's Sphere," makes love to two hundred goddesses dwelling in Maara's palaces by transforming himself into two hundred equally beautiful gods. Once satisfied they are receptive to hearing the Dharma.[94]
iii. Spiritual Friend
A number of Mahaayaana suutras portray Ma~nju'srii either generally or in more specific and concrete terms as a spiritual friend (kalyaa.na-mitra). Thus, in the Ajaata'satruraaja Suutra the Buddha tells 'Saariputra that Ma~nju'srii is the spiritual friend of the bodhisattvas and in the Druma-ki.mnararaaja-parip.rcchaa, Druma, king of the Ki.mnaras, tells Ajaata'satru he has the great advantage of having Ma~nju'srii as a spiritual friend.[95]
An important source for Ma~nju'srii's role as kalyaa.namitra is the Ga.n.davyuuha Suutra, which has for its theme the arising of the Awakening Mind (bodhicitta) and the subsequent spiritual journey towards the goal of awakening. At the same time, it is a story of transformation from seeing things as they are ordinarily seen (lokadhaatu), to seeing things as they are seen by advanced bodhisattvas (dharmadhaatu). The suutra follows the quest of Sudhana, the son of a rich merchant, who hears Ma~nju'srii teaching at Dhanyaakara (where he has been teaching the naaga-s) and as a result develops bodhicitta. Ma~nju'srii teaches him that the basis which identifies all bodhisattvas as such is the state of Complete Benevolence (samantabhadra), and then sets him to learn the nature of the life of the bodhisattva by seeking out spiritual friends who will teach and guide him. The emphasis on spiritual friendship pervades the Ga.n.davyuuha Suutra and is established at the outset by Ma~nju'srii's initial teaching to Sudhana,
Then, Ma~nju'srii, gazing like an elephant, said to Sudhana, "It is good that you follow spiritual friends, having set your mind on s that you should inquire into the practice of bodhisattvas, wishing to fulfil the path of bodhisattvas. Attending and serving spiritual friends is the beginning, the logical course, for the accomplishment of omniscience. Therefore you should tirelessly attend spiritual friends."[96]
Ma~nju'srii thereby becomes the first of fifty-two spiritual friends that Sudhana visits. At the culmination of this pilgrimage Sudhana meets Maitreya who takes him into Vairocana's tower, the realm of perfect interpenetrability, the Dharma-Sphere (dharmadhaatu). Maitreya tells Sudhana that when he, Maitreya, attains awakening they will meet again together with "the spiritual friend Ma~nju'srii". Sudhana is sent off back to Ma~nju'srii for a final teaching on Complete Benevolence.[97] Maitreya's final words to Sudhana constitute a remarkable eulogy to Ma~nju'srii:
Now go back to Ma~nju'srii and ask him how a bodhisattva is to learn and carry out the practice of bodhisattvas, enter the sphere of universally good practice, undertake and carry it out, expand it, follow it, purify it, enter fully into it and fulfil it. He will show you the real spiritual friend. Why? The best of vows of decillions of bodhisattvas is Ma~nju'srii's; vast is the outcome of the practice of Ma~nju' measureless is the accomplishment of vows of Ma~nju' ceaseless is Ma~nju'srii's achievement of the best virtues Ma~nju'srii is the mother of decillions of B Ma~nju'srii is the teacher of decill Ma~nju'srii is engaged in the perf widespread is the name of Ma~nju'srii in all the worlds o Ma~nju'srii is the interlocutor in the assemblies of untold B Ma~nju'srii is praised by all B abiding in the knowledge of profound truth, Ma~nju'srii sees all things according to the Ma~nju'srii has ranged far into all he is immersed in the practice of universally good bodhisattvas. He is the progenitor of spiritual friends, who makes you grow in the family of the enlightened, causes you to establish roots of goodness, shows you the provisions for enlightenment, introduces you to true benefactors, immerses you in all virtues, establishes you in the network of universal vows, causes you to hear of the accomplishment of all vows, shows the secrets of all bodhisattvas, and has similarly practiced the wonder of all bodhisattvas together with you in past lives.
Therefore when you go to Ma~nju'srii, do not be faint-hearted, do not become weary in receiving instruction in all virtues. Why? All the spiritual friends you have seen, all the ways of practice you have heard, all the modes of liberation you have entered, all the vows you have plunged into, should all be looked upon as the empowerment of Ma~nju' and Ma~nju'srii has reached the ultimate perfection.[98]
Ma~nju'srii's relationship with Sudhana in the Ga.n.davyuuha Suutra is immediate, practical and down-to-earth. In China, where this text became very popular, there was what D. T. Suzuki called a gradual 'secularization' of the great bodhisattvas. They are increasingly shown in paintings as inhabiting the ordinary world.[99] In Ma~nju'srii's case this is likely to have been further encouraged by the identification of Wu T'ai shan, "Five-Terrace Mountain," as his principal earthly abode. There are numerous accounts of visions and encounters with Ma~nju'srii at Wu T'ai shan, where he was often said to take the form of an old man.[100]
iv. Object of Meditation and Devotion
Ma~nju'srii is found in the Mahaayaana suutras not only as an interlocutor, spokesman, spiritual friend and converter of sentient beings. He is also portrayed as a bodhisattva worthy of ven keeping his name in mind and meditating upon his form is a way of acquiring both merit and insight. Two suutras that promote this aspect of Ma~nju'srii are the Ma~nju'srii-buddhak.setra-gu.navyuuha Suutra, "The Suutra on the Array of Qualities of Ma~nju'srii's Buddha-Land,"[101] and the Ma~nju'srii-parinirvaa.na Suutra.
In the Ma~nju'srii-buddhak.setra-gu.navyuuha, the Buddha describes how, in the distant past, the Awakening Mind (bodhicitta) arose in Ma~nju'srii at a time when he was a universal king (cakravartin) who had gained much merit through making offerings to a Tathaagata named Meghasvara. As the universal king, Ma~nju'srii wonders how he should should he dedicate it to the end of becoming 'Sakra or Brahmaa, or to becoming a 'Sraavaka or a Pratyekabuddha, in his next life. The gods, knowing what is going through his mind, tell him that these aspirations are narrow and inferior and that he should rather engender the aspiration to highest awakening. When Ma~nju'srii, convinced by their words, visits Meghasvara to ask him how he should develop this aspiration, Meghasvara's short teaching is enough to arouse it in him. Ma~nju'srii rejoices and utters "a great lion's roar":
In the presence of the Lords,