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Use of Eye Movement Tracking in the Differential Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Reading Disability.pdf9页
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Use of Eye Movement Tracking in the Differential Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Reading Disability.pdf
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Psychology, 8-246 doi:10.4236/psych. Published Online October 2010
http://www.SciRP.org/journal/psych Use of Eye Movement Tracking in the Differential Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
and Reading Disability 1 2 2 3 4 Pamela Deans , Liz O’Laughlin , Brad Brubaker , Nathan Gay , Damon Krug 1Mule Creek State Prison, Ione, USA 2Psychology Department, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, USA, 3Devereux Foundation, Rutland, USA, 4CDCSEP, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, USA. Email: lizo@indstate.edu Received July 16th nd st , 2010; revised August 2
, 2010; accepted August 21
, 2010. ABSTRACT The present study examined the clinical utility of eye movement tracking in the differential diagnosis of Attention Defi- cit/Hyperactivity Disorder
and Reading Disorder
RD . It was anticipated that eye movement tracking would
provide a better understanding of the underlying deficits th at potentially contribute to reading difficulties among chil- dren with ADHD and RD. Participants included 27 children diagnosed with ADHD, 20 that met criteria for a reading disorder and 30 Control children with no clinical diagnosis. All participants were between the ages of 6 to
12. Consis- tent with previous research, children in the RD group displayed slower reading time, longer fixation duration and more atypical
eye movement as compared to Control children. The only significant difference between the ADHD and RD groups was in total reading time. Results of a discriminant analysis revealed that less than 60% of participants were given the correct diagnostic classification based on total reading time and proportion of left to right saccades indicating limited support
for this measure in diagnosis of ADHD versus RD.
Keywords : Differential Diagnosis, Comorbidity, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity
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你可能喜欢Linking /r/ in the General British pronunciation of English
Linking /r/ in the General British
pronunciation of English
Adapted and updated from the Journal of the
International Phonetic Association 1975 Vol. 5 no.1 pp 37- 42.
Preliminary Note
OED online 9 May 2014 contained the following entry:
linking r:
a letter r in word-final position that is normally pronounced before a
following vowel but is silent before a following consonant (as in far, far away).
This is unsatisfactory as a scientific definition. It might be better expressed as:
linking r: an
r-sound which is principally heard corresponding to (and historically
speaking& constitutes a retention of the original value of) an r
letter of the traditional spelling in word-final position immediately
before a vowel sound which follows it with complete absence of any
rhythmical hiatus (as in far away).
1950 J. S. KENYON Amer. Pronunc. (ed. 10) 164 Observe that linking r is the use between words of an r that is spelt and was formerly pronounced. Ibid. 165 Linking r is sometimes omitted in Southern British.
1956 D. JONES Outl. Eng. Phonetics (ed. 8) xxi. [Page]196 When a word ending with the letter r is immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel, then a r-sound..is usually inserted in the pronunciation...r inserted in this way is called ‘linking r ’.
The first appearance of the expression linking r in print
appears to
have been in the 1917 first edition of the Daniel Jones English Pronouncing Dictionary where at p. xvii "r-Linking" occurs as the heading of a paragraph
which contains the statement "It will be recalled that the sound <>
is often inserted at the end of a word when the word immediately
following it (in connected speech) begins with a vowel."
Linking /r/
1. Linking /r/ concerned words having as
final phoneme in isolate occurrence in twentieth-century GB (General
British) pronunciation& either /ɑ:/ or /?:/ or one of
the five phonemes involving a (final) central vowel /?, ?:, ??, e?,
??/. Since the end of the twentieth century, /e?/ has been increasingly
recognised as having superseded as mainstream GB usage by the
monophthong /?:/. When any of these is followed closely by a word
beginning with one
of the English vowel sounds an /r/ may be heard. The Gimson 1970
treatment of this topic contained detailed comments on the limitation
the operation of this pattern in situations where many or most speakers
are inhibited from applying the rule to link owing to the influence of
popular conceptions of incorrectitude in regard to the uttering of /r/
where no r was represented in
the traditional orthography. However, it
contained no explicit reference to the dependence of the r-link on
either the segmental or the prosodic environments which the words
involved in the r-link provide. On the other hand, Ward 1939 and
various works of Jones (a, 1956b, 1956c) described at some
length "special circumstances in which a final r has no consonantal
value even when the following word begins with a vowel" (Jones
1956b:§757). Gimson 1970 made no reference to such cases nor to Jones's
mention of them. The enquirer must therefore wonder whether there was
no reference to such exceptional cases because they are no longer
current or merely from pressures of space or possibly from uncertainty.
Gimson's revision of the Jones 1956a text of Jones's Explanations in
Jones-Gimson 1967, which made several minor amendments, left the
fairly lengthy treatment of linking /r/ unaltered.
2. Jones 1918 made the
bare remark
quoted above and repeated in 1956b: §757, but in the re-written 1956a
and 1956c he said more cautiously of his exceptional cases "not as a
rule inserted" before a vowel. One of these cases referred to insertion
of /r/ being "unusual if a pause is possible between the words, even if
no pause is actually made". After over ten years of careful systematic
observation of the r-linking usages of fairly large numbers of
speakers, in particular of scores of newsreaders employed in British
national broadcasting, my impression was that this comment was not
applicable to current General British pronunciation . It would seem
that in such cases as Jones cited
viz he opened the door and walked in
and we'll go there later if
there's time the
r-link is generally made in non-hesitant, not
particularly deliberate styles of delivery. However, it is quite true
that the link is sometimes omitted even when no other suggestion of
pause is made. Examples can be seen in Trim 1959 of links across
explicit tone-group boundaries.&The other of Jones's
two special cases,
the only one of the two which features also in Ward 1939, occurs when
the syllable which would otherwise make the link begins with /r/ as in
error, interior, nearer, rare, roar, there, are etc.
In all of these
items given by Jones as examples of words after which linking /r/ would
"as a rule" be avoided, current usage clearly operates the general rule
of making a link.
3. The pattern is that
currently, if
simple /r/ begins the linkable syllable, the link is in general made.
When made it sounds neither hurried nor undignified. For example, Sir
Laurence Olivier uses r-link in his film version of Othello in It is
the very error of the moon.
Even when one or more other consonants
preceding a stressed link syllable as in bra, registrar, straw and draw
the link is quite likely to be made in normally fluent utterance.
However, often in such cases, and usually when the link syllable is
unstressed and begins with a consonant cluster ending with /r/, the
link is avoided. This applies to words inevitably so structured such as
algebra, contra, extra, orchestra,
Sandra and zebra and
(at all but
points of marked rallentando) usually to words readily or regularly so
structured such as Barbara, camera,
emperor, labourer, lecturer,
manufacturer, murderer, opera etc. At even normal conversational
of utterance such words very often show 'compression' (see Windsor
Lewis 1969: 34), of the resultant two schwas into one, eg in camera and
tripod /'kaemr?n ?tra?p?d/, opera
and ballet /'?pr?n ?baele?/ without
syllabification of the /n/. Anitra
and Peter and Anita and Peter
thus commonly homophonous /?'ni:tr?n ?pi:t?/. Similarly Victoria and
Albert tends often not to exhibit link but to compress the two
resultant successive schwas into one.
Examples of linking syllables beginning with /r/
may be found in Gimson ,
area /r/of and Pring-Germer 1962: 21,
23 terror; 35 error; O'Connor 1971:17 mirror .
4. There is one largish
expressions which break the r-link pattern for fairly obvious reasons.
Honorifics such as Mr, Sir, Doctor,
Se?or, Signor, Monsieur, etc, tend
often (fairly regularly in reading aloud) to be followed by either an
actual pause or an equivalent link-suppression when a name is
introduced. Clearly with English names like the fortunately not very
common Adcliffe, Eade, Odd, Odgers
etc the ambiguity of the /r/ would be embarrassing. It was natural that
newsreaders referring to the late Dr
Erhardt should not want to sound
as if they were talking about a Dr
Rareheart and that some of them at
least (though by no means all) should try to make The Law of the Sea
distinct from The Lore of the Sea.
5. Certain BBC World
Service newsreaders,
especially those of the old guard in the 1970s, could sometimes be
heard employing
non-colloquial usages like Far East
/'fɑ: ˋ?i:st/ with glottal plosive
or Minister of /'m?n?st?
[?]?v.../&with glottal plosive (and strongform
of of by the late Peter King at
least), but such usages would strike one by their
unnaturalness in a conversational context. Compare those who strongly
flap their linking r's: the Jones 1956b: § 756, comment 'generally the
flapped variety', suggests a usage very far from current natural
conversation, unless it entails a flap so weak as to sound different
from a normal /r/ purely by its brevity.&As was pointed out
rightly at Jones
1956a: xxv, the use or non-use of linking /r/ is a notable field for
idiosyncratic variation on the part of individual speakers. One even
finds in one and the same speaker on the one hand a tendency to drop
common r-links and on the other free use of 'intrusive' r.
6. One BBC newsreader
who even apparently
regularly used r-link to the derivative suffix of drawing /dr?:r??/
yet omit linking /r/ in our air
correspondent. Some speakers have the
odd phrase or two which they treat similarly without r-link, as eg in
before it or for it. [Such usages have become
increasingly rare by the 21st century.] Speakers who do so with
enclitic pronouns are
comparable to the minority
who use /h/ in almost all occurrences of enclitic him, her etc. At the
other end of the scale a familiar expression like the Chancellor of the
Exchequer may elide both schwas as well as /r/ becoming
homophonous
with the non-existent the chancel of
etc / ?? 'tfɑ:nsl ?v ?i ?ks'?ek?/.
A "quart of an hour" spoken fluently passes unnoticed for quarter of. The first pair of words of the title Victoria and Albert Museum is generally made homophonous with the hardly existent coupling *Victorian Albert.
7. The clear path along
which the EFL
learner should be guided is obviously between the extremes of
preciousness and casualness. One of the very few uncommendable things
in O'Connor's admirable Better
English Pronunciation was its invitation
to the EFL learner to ignore linking /r/ if he finds it 'easier' to do
so (p.79). It seems most undesirable to encourage such an approach. The
proportion of British speakers who have no r-links in expressions like
never again, cheer up, runner up,
before our eyes, an hour or
are, our own, RAF etc, is very small indeed. This style of
utterance, when heard at the rate of delivery
generally found most comfortable by EFL speakers, is widely felt to be
precious or effeminate and very often correlates with socially
conspicuous varieties of pronunciation.&This is not to
suggest that all
non-linking sounds affected etc. In a very markedly fluent style
non-linking very often sounds perfectly natural but it is one of the
characteristics of a casual and/or very fluent style of delivery and,
if the other characteristics - as is very likely to be the case from
EFL speakers - are not in general harmony with this style, the
non-linkings will very probably stand out as unpleasantly incongruous.
The so-called 'intrusive' linking /r/
8. Probably next in
notoriety to the
dropping of /h/ and the 'dropping' of g
(from -ng) in the popular
of vices that puristically inclined English-speakers profess to abhor
is the utterance of an
r-sound where no corresponding r-letter
'justifies' doing so in the
traditional orthography. Typical of this popular attitude were the
comments in Voice and Speech in the
Theatre (1950), a manual of speech
for aspiring actors by J. Clifford Turner, who under the heading "The
Outcast, or Intrusive R" remarks "One of the cardinal sins of utterance
is the insertion of an R where none exists in the spelling. All
speakers ... are guilty of this at one time or another .... It is not
easy to avoid using it in ... conversational utterance, but the idea of
it elsewhere must not be entertained". The reader of these
linguistically rather na?vely expressed comments can clearly read
between the lines that extensive use of non-orthographical linking /r/
is Turner's
last-quoted remark, a good deal of such /r/-linking is also to be heard
even from the most admired practitioners of our most elevated language
of stage, pulpit, bar and so on. One wonders how far it was a case of
'give a dog a bad name'. Perhaps the widespread inhibitions about using
the non-orthographic analogous linking r would not exist if it had been
labelled the 'euphonic' r by some revered pundit such as Dr Johnson. That was how A. J.
Ellis referred to it in Volume V of his On Early English Pronunciation
at p. 229 [1661] in commenting on how Thackeray had indicated the
speech of a&fictional footman's diary in a comic piece in Punch in 1845 or so with euphonic r's in pawing, drawing and saw ’em etc.&
9. The French obviously have no guilt feelings about their precisely
comparable use of /t/ in y a-t-il
etc but they have given that
orthographical recognition of course. This unetymological
type of r-link has
been known for two hundred years. It naturally strikes those who
pronounce all orthographical r's as very curious. From time to time it
receives comment as when President Kennedy was 'accused' of pronouncing
Cuba as /kjub?r/, a misleading
half truth. Also comment has been rather
oddly selective from early on. The less frequent types come in for more
attacks. There are very few words in English ending in /-ɑ:/ not
spelled with final -r (or -re) nor nearly so many ending similarly in
/-?:/ as those spelled with a central vowel so these tend to acquire
extra opprobrium. Most pilloried of all are the few word-internal cases
where a derivative suffix tends to acquire non-orthographical /r/ such
drawing, gnawing, sawing, withdrawal,
camera-ing which may all be heard
occasionally with /r/ from less self-conscious or less usage-anxious GB
speakers. The Gimson () comment that many 'have to make a
conscious effort to avoid such forms' was no doubt fully justified. One
has heard eg withdraw/r/ing
from distinguished speakers such as the&Harrovian Lord Deedes and eg the hyper-adaptation of
warring as /w?:??/ from the late Lord Soper. Two of the half dozen or
principal newsreaders on Radio Four might be heard in June 1975
to use regularly withdraw/r/al. In light-hearted style one has heard
old Shaw/r/y in reference to Bernard Shaw (from the 'Monty Python'
cast). The versions of concertinaing
/'k?ns?ˋti:n?r??/, vanilla-ish
/v?ˋn?l?r??/, Goyaesque
/'g???`resk/, and Kafkaesque
/'kaefk?`resk/ with
/r/ are probably more common than the /r/-less ones, yet the
linguistically na?ve layman who has his use of them pointed out to him
is likely to be aghast and contrite.
10. It is interesting to
compare Daniel
Jones's developing attitudes to unorthographic r-links over more than
half a century. He felt early on that law/r/
of, papa/r/ and and
draw/r/ing were simply 'London
dialect' (Jones 1914: § 74). He thought
of himself at first as never using 'intrusive' /r/ and that he was
thereby a member of 'probably a small majority' (Jones 1917; xvii). He
later observed that 'I ... occasionally found myself using intrusive
/r/' (Jones 1956a: xxv) and he finally came to think that the number of
those who do not use 'intrusive' /r/ was (Jones 1956c: § 366) 'probably
very small'. His impression, on the other
hand, that a 'great many Southern people may now be found who do not
linking r at all' seems quite exaggerated. In fact, he contradicted it
in the same paragraph, Jones 1956c §360, which said 'in common
expressions like for instance, after all etc the r is still generally
sounded, but some omit it even here'. Those must be
indeed very few in number today. Ida Ward () wrote in 1939
'There is no doubt that the intrusive r is spreading 'but in I saw it
it would not be used by an educated speaker'. This last comment was
clearly rather an oldfashioned view when she wrote it: it is totally
inapplicable in the 21st century. Its conservatism can be gauged from,
among other
sources, Lloyd James (1932) where at p. 107 the author, at the time a
linguistic adviser to the BBC, referred to 'intrusive' r as 'always
us, safely entrenched, and apparently a firmly established feature of
so-called Standard English ... frequently used by statesmen,
barristers, actors, clergymen, schoolmasters, and university
professors'. However, he was reluctant to condone the usage and a few
pages later (pp 117, 118) expressed approval of a then BBC veto on "a
in A". In 1890 in his Primer of
Spoken English (p.viii) Henry Sweet had
remarked "I know as a fact that most speakers of educated Southern
English insert an r in idea(r) of,
India(r) office etc.
11. In 1948 J. D.
O'Connor consciously
offered a "good sprinkling of 'intrusive r's' '' in his New Phonetic
Readings recognising specifically that this was 'a departure
justified by the frequency with which they occur in modern speech at
every level' and that it was 'incontrovertible' that it was 'so common
as to be normal in present-day English'. The reluctance of some other
authors of phonetic readers to follow this excellent example can safely
be put down to the triumph of idealism over realism. Now that there is
no excuse for phonetic readers not to be accompanied by recordings,
they should provide plenty of evidence for the above assertions. This
was the case with the writer's People
Speaking (1975) which was
based on both
scripted and unscripted dialogues. These contained items like /'bɑ:br
'edw?dz/ Barbara Edwards and a linking /r/ across a
hesitation,
unprompted by the author and sounding perfectly 'natural' — which was
the only request made of the actors who recorded it.&Finally, the
recommendation for the EFL
learner is clear. Failure to make r-link is now abnormal except
word-internally and after /ɑ:/ and /?:/ (as in Shah and saw) given the
appropriate prosody, so&& normal r-links should be made irrespective of
traditional orthography, when prosodic environment would be such that a
native GB speaker would make a link. These essential features of
prosody are that there should be no pause between the two words
involved and that the rate of utterance is normal or average tempo. At
a rather markedly rapid rate,
elision of the
at a markedly slow rate of
utterance it is also not abnormal.
References
Gimson, A. C. (1970). An
Introduction
to the Pronunciation of English. London: Arnold.
Jones, Daniel (1914). The
Pronunciation
of English. London: C.U.P.
Jones, Daniel (1956a). An English
Pronouncing Dictionary. London: Dent.
Jones, Daniel(b). An
of English Phonetics. Cambridge, U.K.: Heffer.
Jones, Daniel (1956c). The
Pronunciation of English. London: C.U.P.
Jones, Daniel, & Gimson, A. C.
(1967). An English Pronouncing
Dictionary. London: Dent. .
Lloyd James, A. (1932). The
Word. London: Kegan Paul.
O'Connor, J. D. (1948). New Phonetic
Readings. Berne: A. Francke.
O'Connor, J. D. (1967). Better
Pronunciation. London: C.U.P.
O'Connor, J. D. (1971). Advanced
Phonetic Reader. London: C.U.P.
Pring, J. T., & Germer, R. (1962).
A New English Phonetic Reader. Dortmund:Lambert
Trim, J. L. M. (1959) Major and Minor
Tone Groups in English M Ph
Turner, J. Clifford (1956). Voice
Speech in the Theatre. London: Pitman.
Ward, I. C. (1939). The Phonetics of
English. Cambridge, U.K.: Heffer.
Windsor Lewis, J. (1969). A Guide to
English Pronunciation. Oslo: Scandinavian Universities Press
Windsor Lewis, J. (1972). A Concise
Pronouncing Dictionary. London: O.U.P.
Windsor Lewis, J. (1977). People Speaking:Phonetic Readings in
English. London: O.U.P.
PS A recent study of the phenomenon in&the speech of British
television newsreaders was part of a 2006 thesis by Dr Bente R.
Hannisdal of Bergen University available for download as a pdf.