法国的英文介绍有中文翻译
法国的英文介绍有中文翻译
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France , officially French Republic, republic (2005 est. pop. 60,656,000), 211,207 sq mi (547,026 sq km), W Europe. France is bordered by the English Channel (N), the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of Biscay (W), Spain and Andorra (SW), the Mediterranean Sea (S), Switzerland and Italy (SE), and Germany, Luxembourg, and Belgium (NE). The natural land frontiers are the Pyrenees, along the border with S the Jura Mts. and the Alps, along the border with Switzerland and I and the Rhine River, which is part of the border with Germany. France's capital and largest city is Paris .LandAlthough France's old historic provinces were abolished by the Revolution, they remain the country's basic geographic, cultural, and economic divisions. These provinces mirror France's natural geographic regions and, despite modern administrative centralization, retain their striking diversity. The heart of France N of the Loire River is the province of ?le-de-France, which occupies the greater part of the Paris basin, a fertile depression drained by the Seine and Marne rivers. The basin is surrounded by the provinces of Champagne and L Artois , Picardy, French Flanders (see Nord dept.), and Normandy in the Brittany, Maine , and A and Touraine , Orléanais , Nivernais , and Burgundy in the south. Further south are Berry and Bourbonnais . Further east, between the Vosges Mts. and the Rhine, is A S of Alsace, along the Jura, is Franche-Comté.South-central France is occupied by the rugged mountains of the Massif Central, one of the country's major natural features. It comprises the provinces of Marche , Limousin, Auvergne, and Lyonnais . To the E of the Rh?ne River, which divides the Massif Central from the Alps, are Savoy , Dauphiné , and Provence . The French Alps have some of the highest peaks in Europe, including Mont Blanc. The Rh?ne valley widens into a plain near its delta on the M part of the coast of Provence forms the celebrated French Riviera . Languedoc extends from the Cevennes Mts. to the Mediterranean coast W of the Rh?ne. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. The southwestern part of France comprises the small Pyrenean provinces of Roussillon , Foix , Béarn , and French Navarre and the vast provinces of Gascony and Guienne . The last two constitute the great Aquitanian plain, drained by the Garonne and Dordogne rivers, which flow into the Bay of Biscay. The central section of the west coast, between the Gironde estuary and the Loire, is occupied by the provinces of Saintonge , Angoumois , Aunis , and Poitou .Since 1972 France has been administratively divided into 22 regions, many of which correspond to the nation's historical provinces. These regions are: Alsace , Aquitane, Auvergne , Basse-Normandie, Bourgogne ( Burgundy ), Bretagne ( Brittany ), Centre, Champagne-Ardenne, Corse ( Corsica ), Franche-Comté , Haute-Normandie, ?le-de-France , Languedoc-Roussillon, Limousin , Lorraine , Midi-Pyrenees, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Pays de la Loire, Picardie ( Picardy ), Poitou-Charentes, Provence-Alpes-C?te d'Azur, and Rhone-Alpes.France also has a number of overseas departments, territories, and countries which, legally, are part of the French Republic. The overseas departments are Martinique , Guadeloupe , Réunion , and French Guiana . The overseas countries and territories are New Caledonia , French Polynesia , Wallis and Futuna Islands , and the French Southern and Antarctic Territories. Mayotte is a departmental collectivity, and St. Pierre and Miquelon is a territorial collectivity.PeopleAbout 75% of the population live in urban areas. Until the end of World War II the population increase in France was perhaps the lowest in Europe, but in postwar decades the rate has increased. The mingling of peoples over the centuries as well as immigration in the 20th cent. has given France great ethnic diversity. A large influx of predominantly North African immigrants has had a great effect on the cities, especially Paris and Marseille.French is the nation's language. There are also a number of regional dialects, which are largely declining in usage. Alsatian, a German dialect, is spoken in Alsace and in parts of Lorraine. A small number speak Flemish, a Dutch dialect, in French Flanders. In Celtic Brittany, Breton is still spoken, as is Basque in the Bayonne region, Proven?al in Provence, Catalan at the eastern end of the Pyrenees, and Corsican on the island of Corsica.Roman Catholicism is by far the largest religion in France, nominally professed by about 85% of the population, although only an estimated 5% are churchgoers. With growing immigration from Asia, Turkey, and North Africa, France also has a large Muslim population, estimated at 3 to 5 million. There are smaller numbers of Protestants and Jews. Separation of church and state was made final by law in 1905.EconomyFrance is one of the world's major economic powers. Agriculture plays a larger role than in the economies of most other industrial countries. A large proportion of the value of total agricultural output derives from livestock (especially cattle, hogs, poultry, and sheep). The mountain areas and NW France are the livestock regions. The country's leading crops are wheat, sugar beets, corn, barley, and potatoes, with the most intensive cultivation N of the L the soil in the Central Massif is less fertile. Fruit growing is important in the south. France is among the foremost producers of wine in the world. The best-known vineyards are in Burgundy, Champagne, the Rh?ne and Loire valleys, and the Bordeaux region. The centers of the wine trade are Bordeaux, Reims , ?pernay , Dijon , and Cognac .France's leading industries produce machinery, chemicals, automobiles, metals, aircraft, electronics equipment, textiles, and foods (especially cheeses). Advanced technology industries are also important. Coal, iron ore, bauxite, and other minerals are mined. Tourism is an important industry, and Paris is famous for its luxury goods. Nuclear energy furnishes 75% of all electricity produced in France. In addition to the Paris area, important industrial cities are, in the northeast, Metz , Strasbourg , Roubaix , and L in the southeast, Lyons , Saint-?tienne , Clermont-Ferrand , and G in the south, Marseilles , Toulouse , Nice , and N? and in the west, Bordeaux and Nantes . Other important cities are Orléans , Tours , Troyes , and Arles .France has an extensive railway system, the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Fran?ais (SNCF). The first of a number of high-speed rail lines (TGVs) was completed in 1983, linking Paris and Lyons. Subsequent lines connected Paris to several other French cities, as well as Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and, via the Channel Tunnel , Great Britain.The government previously had majority ownership in many commercial banks, some key industries, and various utilities, including the telephone system. There has been recent movement toward privatization, with the government reducing its holdings in many companies, although it still controls energy production, public transportation, and defense industries.Leading exports are machinery and transportation equipment, aircraft, plastics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, iron and steel, and beverages. Leading imports are machinery and equipment, vehicles, crude oil, aircraft, plastics, and chemicals. Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States are the main trading partners. The chief ports are Rouen , Le Havre , Cherbourg , Brest , Saint-Nazaire , Nantes, Bordeaux, Toulon , Dunkirk , and Marseilles.GovernmentSince the Revolution of 1789, France has had an extremely uniform and centralized administration, although constitutional changes in 2003 now permit greater autonomy to the nation's regions and departments. The country is governed under the 1958 constitution (as amended), which established the Fifth French Republic and reflected the views of Charles de Gaulle . It provides for a strong president, directly elected for a five-year term (changes in 2000 and 2008 reduced the term from seven years and limited a person to two terms as president). A premier and cabinet, appointed by the president, are responsible to the National Assembly, but they are subordinate to the president. The bicameral legislature consists of the National Assembly and the Senate. Deputies to the 577-seat National Assembly are elected for five-year terms from single-member districts. The 331 Senators are elected for nine-year terms from each department by an electoral college composed of the deputies, district council members, and municipal council members from the department.France's 22 administrative regions (see above under Land ) each have a directly elected regional council, primarily responsible for stimulating economic and social activity. The regions are further divided into 96 departments (not including the four overseas departments), which are governed by a locally elected general council, with one councilor per canton. Further subdivisions are districts ( arrondisements ), cantons, and communes. The districts and cantons have little power. The communes, however, are more powerful because they are responsible for municipal services and are represented in the national government by the mayor.HistoryAncient Gaul to FeudalismSome of the earliest anthropological and archaeological remains in Europe have been found in France, yet little is known of France before the Roman conquest (1st cent. BC). The country was known to the Romans as Gaul . It was inhabited largely by Celts , or Gauls, who had mingled with still older populations, and by Basques in what became the region of Gascony. Some of the Gallic tribes undoubtedly were Germanic. Settlements on the Mediterranean coast, notably Marseilles, were established by Greek and Phoenician traders (c.600 BC), and Provence was colonized by Rome in the 2d cent. BC The conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar (58-51 BC; see Gallic Wars ) became final with the defeat of Vercingetorix . Early in the course of the following five centuries of Roman rule Gaul accepted Latin speech and Roman law, developed a distinct Gallo-Roman civilization, and produced many large and prosperous cities. Lugdunum (Lyons) was the Roman capital.Christianity, introduced in the 1st cent. AD, spread rapidly. From the 3d cent., however, the internal decline of the Roman Empire invited barbarian incursions. Among the Germanic tribes that descended upon fertile Gaul, the Visigoths , Franks , and Burgundii were the most important. Rome and its governors in Gaul sought, by alliances, to play the barbarians off against each other. Thus Aetius defeated (AD 451) the Huns under Attila with the help of the Franks. But in 486 (10 years after the traditional date for the fall of Rome) the Franks, under Clovis I , routed Syagrius, last Roman governor of Gaul. Clovis, who had made himself ruler of all the Franks, then defeated the Visigoths and, after accepting Christianity (496), conquered the Alemanni. He extinguished the Arian heresy (see Arianism ) and founded the dynasty of the Merovingians —but he failed to provide for the unity of Gaul when, as was customary, he divided his lands among his sons at his death.Throughout the 6th and 7th cent., Gaul was torn by fratricidal strife between the Merovingian kings of Neustria and of Austrasia , the two realms that ultimately emerged from Clovis's division and were united only for brief periods under a sole ruler. Especially after Dagobert I (d. 639), Merovingian rule sank into indolence, cruelty, and dissipation. Gaul was depopulated, the cities were left in ruins, commerce was destroyed, and the arts and sciences were ignored. In the 8th cent. the only remnant of Roman civilization, the church, was threatened by extinction when the Saracens invaded Gaul.In the meantime a more rigorous dynasty, the Carolingians , had come to rule Austrasia as mayors of the palace in the name of the decadent Merovingian kings, and had united (687) Austrasia with Neustria. In 732, the Carolingian Charles Martel decisively defeated the Saracens between Poitiers and Tours. His son, Pepin the Short , dethroned the last Merovingian in 751 and proclaimed himself king with the sanction of the pope. Pepin's son was Charlemagne .Crowned emperor of the West in 800, Charlemagne expanded his lands by conquest. He gave his subjects an efficient administration, created an admirable legal system, and labored for the rebirth of learning, piety, and the arts. But his son, Emperor Louis I , could not maintain the empire he inherited. At Louis's death (840), his three sons were fighting each other. In 843 the brothers, Charles II (Charles the Bald), king of the West Franks, Louis the German , and Emperor Lothair I , redivided their territories (see Verdun, Treaty of ). Charles was recognized as the ruler of the lands that are now France.The Carolingians had only superficially transcended the economic, social, and political fragmentation of the land. The weakness of central authority was a major reason for the development of feudalism and the manorial system . Raids by Norsemen , beginning in the late 8th cent., contributed to the declin in 885-86, the Norsemen even besieged Paris. The authority of the kings was increasingly usurped by feudal lords. Among the most powerful of these were the dukes of Aquitaine and of Burgundy and the counts of Flanders , of Toulouse, of Blois , and of Anjou. In 911 the Norse leader Rollo was recognized as duke of Normandy.The Birth of FranceWhen the Carolingian dynasty died out in France, the nobles chose (987) Hugh Capet as king. It is from this date that the history of France as a separate kingdom is generally reckoned (see table entitled Rulers of France since 987 for a listing of the kings of France and subsequent French leaders). The early Capetians were dukes of Francia, a small territory around Paris, and were without power in the rest of France. By unremitting effort they gradually extended their domain, razed the castles of robber barons, and held their own against the great feudatories. Louis VI (reigned 1108-37) brought this process into full force, and it was continued by Louis VII (1137-80).In the 11th cent. the towns had begun regaining population and wealth. Drawing together for their common defense (see commune ), the townspeople won increasingly advantageous charters from the king and from their feudal lords. Commerce revived, and the great fairs of Champagne made France a meeting place for European merchants. The Cluniac order and the revival of theological learning at Paris (which was to make the Sorbonne the fountainhead of scholasticism ) gave France tremendous prestige in Christendom. This rebirth reached its height in the 13th cent. and was aided by the leading role that France played in the Crusades . The crusaders established the French ideal of chivalry—personified in Louis IX (St. Louis)—in most of Europe. French courtly poetry and manners became European models.In England, French manners and culture also predominated among the nobles because of the Norman Conquest (1066). The fact that the Norman English kings were also French nobles, holding or claiming vast fiefs in France, brought the two nations into centuries of conflict. When Henry II , king of England and duke of Normandy, married (1152) Eleanor of Aquitaine , the divorced wife of Louis VII of France, Eleanor brought as her dowry extensive areas in France. Louis's successor, Philip II (Philip A ), clashed repeatedly with Henry's sons, Richard I and John. Defeating John in 1204 and again, resoundingly, at Bouvines (1214), Philip soundly established the military prestige of France.During Philip's reign a greater France emerged. The crusade against the Albigenses (begun 1208) netted the crown the huge fiefs of the counts of Toulouse in S France, and the royal domain (directly subject to the king) now formed the larger part of the kingdom. Philip made the royal authority felt throughout the land. Paris was rebuilt. Louis IX (1226-70) organized an efficient and equitable civil and judicial system. Under Philip IV (), the royal administration was improved even more. Philip failed to incorporate Flanders into his holdings, as the Flemish crushed the French at Courtrai (1302). To meet his revenue needs Philip taxed the clergy, summoning the first national States-General (1302) to support his policy. He also destroyed the wealthy Knights Templars . Papal objections to these moves led to the Babylonian Captivity (1309-77) of the popes (see papacy ).Philip's son, Louis X , ruled briefly (1314-16); he was succeeded by two brothers, Philip V (1317-22) and Charles IV (1322-28). Within a few years after the death of Charles IV, who was also without a male heir, progress toward national unification was halted, and for more than a century France was rent by warfare and internal upheaval.The Making of a NationIn 1328, Philip VI (1328-50), of the house of Valois , a younger branch of the Capetians, succeeded to the throne. The succession was contested by Philip's remote cousin, Edward III of England (grandson of Philip IV), who in 1337 proclaimed himself king of France. Thus began the dynastic struggle known as the Hundred Years War (), actually a series of wars and truces. It was complicated by many secondary issues, notably civil troubles in Flanders and the War of the Breton Succession .The French defeats at Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356), the epidemic of the Black Death, the Parisian insurrection under ?tienne Marcel (1357-58), the Jacquerie (peasant revolt) of 1358, and the pillaging bands of écorcheurs plunged France into anarchy and forced John II (1350-64) to accept the humiliating Treaty of Brétigny (1360). Under Charles V (1364-80), however, Bertrand Du Guesclin recovered (1369-73) all lost territories except Calais and the Bordeaux region. Charles VI () became insane in 1392, although he had lucid intervals. Rivalry for power at court led to the terrible strife between Armagnacs and Burgundians . In 1415, Henry V of England revived the English claim, renewed the war, and crushed the French—unaided by the Burgundians—at Agincourt . In 1420, Charles VI made Henry V his heir, disinheriting his son, the dauphin, later Charles VII (see Troyes, Treaty of ). The dauphin nevertheless assumed the royal title in 1422, but his authority extended over only a small area.The English now held most of France, including Paris. Powerful Burgundy, under Philip the Good , was allied with England. In 1428 the English besieged the key city of Orléans. At this hour appeared Joan of Arc , who helped relieve Orléans, rallied the dauphin's followers, and in 1429 stood by the dauphin's side as he was crowned at Reims. In 1435, Burgundy, although exacting exorbitant concessions, allied itself with France (see Arras, Treaty of ). In 1453 the English lost their last hold on French soil outside Calais .It was left for Louis XI (1461-83) to destroy the power of the last great feudal lords and to incorporate into the royal domain almost all of present France. He was aided by the downfall (1477) of Charles the Bold of Burgundy and by the extinction of the Angevin dynasty. Brittany was united with France shortly afterward (see Anne of Brittany ), and the larger part of the fiefs held by the Bourbon family was confiscated in 1527.Under the reigns () of Charles VIII , Louis XII , Francis I , Henry II , and Francis II , France proved its amazing recuperative powers despite the heavy drain imposed on its resources by the Italian Wars (). The superficially brilliant reign of Francis I (1515-47) was taken up with almost constant warfare against the Hapsburg Charles V; however, this period also saw the spread of the Italian Renaissance into France (see F French literature ). The first phase of the struggle between France and the house of Hapsburg ended with the triumph of Hapsburg Spain in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559).The Reformation and its AftermathBeginning in the reign of Francis I, the Reformation gained many adherents in France (see Huguenots ). In 1560 religious conflict flared up in the first of the ferocious civil wars (see Religion, Wars of ) that tore France asunder during the reigns (1560-89) of the last Valois kings, Charles IX and Henry III . The Catholics, led by the ambitious Guise family, eventually formed the Catholic League and obtained Spanish support against the Protestant Henry of Navarre, the legal heir of Henry III. Navarre was supported by some moderate Catholics as well as by the Protestants. He defeated the League but had to accept Catholicism before being allowed to enter (1594) Paris. Ruling as Henry IV , he became the first Bourbon king of France. With his great minister, Sully , he made France prosperous once again and encouraged French explorers in Canada.Religious freedom and political security for Protestants were promulgated in the Edict of Nantes (1598; see Nantes, Edict of ), but after Henry's assassination (1610) by a Catholic fanatic the rights of the Huguenots were steadily reduced. Under his successor, Louis XIII (1610-43), and in the minority of Louis XIV, two great statesmen successively shaped the destiny of the kingdom—Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin . They led France to victory in the Thirty Years War (1618-48), which France entered openly in 1635, joining the Protestant allies against the Hapsburg powers, Austria and Spain. Austria was defeated in 1648 (see Westphalia, Peace of ), Spain in 1659 (see Pyrenees, Peace of the ). At home, Richelieu destroyed the political power of the Huguenots, and Mazarin overcame the nobles in the wars of the Fronde .Louis XIV (), aided by the genius of Jean Baptiste Colbert (d. 1683) and Fran?ois Louvois , completed Richelieu's and Mazarin's work of centralization. Raising the position of the king to a dignity and prestige hitherto unknown in France, Louis XIV made France the first power in Europe and his court at Versailles the cynosure of Europe. But his many wars undermined French finances, and his persecution of the Huguenots (the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685) caused serious harm to the economy as thousands of merchants and skilled workers left France. His successes in the War of Devolution (1667-68) against Spain and the Dutch War (see Dutch Wars ) of 1672-78 inspired all Europe with fear of French hegemony and resulted in the diplomatic isolation of France. The War of the Grand Alliance (1688-97) against Louis XIV be the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), although it did not end with a clear victory over France, marked the end of French expansion in Europe. The reign of Louis XIV saw the height of French power in America. France, at the end of Louis's reign, was exhausted from it yet its latent strength and wealth were so great that it recovered prosperity within a few years.The Ancien Régime and Attempts at ReformLouis XV (1715-74) inherited a unified France, but a France still burdened by the remnants of feudalism. The &absolute& power of the king was hedged in by a stupendous multitude of dusty charters and special privileges—often granted to remove the recipients from national politics—held by families, guilds, monopolies, communes, and provinces, and by the clergy and nobles. Taxes, although onerous, were raised inefficiently and inequitably, partly by the farmers general (see farming , in taxation), partly by the state. Commerce, based on mercantilism , was hampered by restrictive regulations, monopolies, and internal tariff barriers. Rural overpopulation outstripped the stagnant agricultural productivity. Colbert had reorganized the administration by curtailing the power of the provincial governors and by reestablishing the administrative units called intendancies, originated by Richelieu. The intendants were trusted civil servants who carried out the policies of the central government, but their capacity to break down local privilege was limited. In several provinces, notably Brittany, the local assemblies of the three estates retained the power to thwart reforms.A more significant stronghold of aristocratic privilege and vested interest the parlements skillfully related their special interests to the still popular ideal of local liberty. The ever-expanding bourgeoisie as well as the large body of landowning farmers, however, were finding the remnants of feudal dues, services, and other customs increasingly intolerable. Economic reform became the rallying cry of the physiocrats and their disciples such as Turgot . Many philosophers of the Enlightenment , notably Voltaire , looked hopefully to the monarchy for administrative rationalization, but the crown's sporadic attempts at reform, particularly of finances, were hindered by the parlements. Operating under a system of outworn privilege, the wealthiest country in Europe was ruled by a government perennially on the verge of bankruptcy.The honest administration (1726-43) of Cardinal Fleury had barely extricated France from the disastrous failure of the Mississippi Scheme (1720), when Louis XV plunged into the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) and the Seven Years War (1756-63). Not only was the treasury drained, but France lost its empire in India and North America. Turgot's reforms, instituted early in the reign of Louis XVI (1774-92), were cut short in 1776, when he was dismissed. Seeking to avenge its defeat by Britain in the Seven Years War, France supported the American Revolution (1775-83). Financially, however, the war was a disaster for France.The Revolution and Napoleon IIn 1788, after neither Calonne nor Loménie de Brienne could get the necessary financial measures enacted, Necker was called back to office to attempt to repair the irreparable, and the States-General were convoked for the first time since 1614. Thus began the upheaval that shook Europe from 1789 to 1815 (see French R French Revolutionary W D C Napoleon I ). The States-General were transformed into the National Assembly (1789); a constitutional monarchy was created (1791); war with much of Europe began, accompanied by violence and the growth of radical factions in France (1792); the king and queen were beheaded (1793); Robespierre presided over the Reign of Terror (1793-94) until his own execution.A reaction ushered in the Directory (1795-99), terminated by Napoleon Bonaparte's coup. Napoleon made himself emperor (1804) and led his armies as far as Moscow. After his defeat at Waterloo (1815) virtually nothing remained for France from the Napoleonic conquests except the basis for a powerful legend. But Napoleonic administration and law (see Code Napoléon ) left a permanent impact on France. From the ancien régime there reemerged the church (1801 Concordat with the Vatican) and an aristocracy less affluent and shorn of its feudal privileges but still influential.Royalism, Reform, and the Birth of Modern FranceThe French Revolution and Napoleon established a uniform, modern administrative system, gave land tenure to the peasants, and left to the bourgeoisie a political heritage that they quickly reclaimed. The Congress of Vienna (1814-15; see Vienna, Congress of ) restored the borders of 1790 and recognized Louis XVIII as France's legitimate sovereign. The king granted a moderately liberal charter but took France into the reactionary Holy Alliance . His successor, Charles X (1824-30), was the champion of the ultraroyalists.Charles's efforts to restore absolutism led to the July Revolution of 1830, which enthroned Louis Philippe . The July Monarchy was a frank plutocracy run by the upper bourgeoisie. Under the &citizen king,& France conquered Algeria (1830-38). The regime became increasingly autocratic, disregarding the plight of the new urban proletariat. Brought low by the unpopularity of the ministry of Guizot and by economic depression (1846-47), it fell in the February Revolution of 1848. The revolution was at first distinctly radical, but the bourgeoisie triumphed in the June Days .In Dec., 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, was elected president of the Second Republic. In 1852, by a coup, he extended his term and then proclaimed himself emperor as Napoleon III . He emulated his uncle's autocratic regime at home and carried on a confused foreign policy with unrewarding wars (in Russia, Italy, and Mexico). The Second Empire was, however, a period of colonial expansion (in Senegal and Indochina) and of material prosperity. In 1869, Napoleon instituted a more liberal regime with a parliamentary government. But the empire ended disastrously in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), in which Alsace and Lorraine were lost to Germany until 1918.The Third Republic () was proclaimed after Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians. After the bloody suppression of the Commune of Paris (1871) by the right-wing provisional government under Adolphe Thiers , Marshal MacMahon , a royalist sympathizer, was elected president (1873). But for the intransigence of Henri, comte de Chambord (the legitimist pretender), France might again have become a monarchy. A republican constitution was finally adopted in 1875. As the various parties combined, separated, and recombined into political blocs, new cabinets followed in quick succession.The 1880s witnessed the expansion of railroads
the latter revived the age-old quarrel in France between church and state. In 1905, after other issues had been added to the dispute, church and state were separated by law. After the rapid rise and fall (1888-89) of General Boulanger , the stability of France was once more shaken by the Dreyfus Affair (begun 1894), which discredited monarchists and reactionaries and brought anticlerical, moderate leftists to power. Socialism, led by Guesde and Jaurès , was now a major political force but was weakened by internal dissensions. In foreign policy the years before 1914 were marked by continued colonial expansion in Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, West Africa, Madagascar) and Indochina, bringing conflict with Great Britain (see Fashoda Incident ) and with Germany (see Morocco ). Eventually, France, England, and Russia allied themselves to balance the German-Austrian-Italian combination (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente ).The World WarsIn World War I, France bore the brunt of the ground fighting in the west. Clemenceau was France's outstanding leader. At the Paris Peace Conference (see Versailles, Treaty of ) France obtained heavy German reparations and the right to occupy the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years. When reparations payments were defaulted, France occupied the Ruhr (1923-25).Outstanding among French political figures of the 1920s were Poincaré , Herriot , and Briand . By the middle of the decade relations with Germany had improved (see Locarno Pact ). The depression of the 1930s was aggravated by the immobile economic policies of the government, and political complacency was rocked by the Stavisky Affair (1934). The Popular Front, a coalition led by Léon Blum , of Socialists, Radical Socialists, and Communists, won the elections of 1936; Popular Front governments (1936-38) enacted important social and labor reforms before being overturned by conservative opposition.After Blum's fall, ?douard Daladier assented to the appeasement policy toward Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Spain favored by Britain and made France a party to the Munich Pact (1938). After the outbreak (1939) of World War II he was replaced by Paul Reynaud . In May-June, 1940, France was ignominiously defeated by Germany. Marshal Pétain became head of the Vichy government (see under Vichy ) of unoccupied France (other Vichy leaders were Laval and Darlan ), which became a German tool, while Gen. Charles de Gaulle proclaimed, from London, the continued resistance of the &Free French.& The Allied invasion (Nov., 1942) of North Africa resulted (1943) in the establishment of a provisional Free French government at Algiers and in the complete German occupation of metropolitan France. De Gaulle's government moved to Paris after the city was liberated (Aug., 1944).By the end of 1944 the Allies, with heroic aid from the French resistance, had expelled the Germans from France. German occupation had been costly and oppressive. Thousands had been executed and hundreds of thousands made slave laborers in Germany. The liberation campaign itself caused much destruction. Although reduced in power and prestige, France became one of the five great powers in the United Nations and shared in the occupation of Germany. De Gaulle became provisional president.The Fourth Republic and Postwar FranceThe Fourth Republic was officially proclaimed in 1946; the new constitution reorganized the empire as the French Union and was otherwise quite similar to that of the Third Republic. In the immediate postwar years the Communists, notably Maurice Thorez , a major figure in the PCF and a fixture in government throughout the Fourth Republic and into the Fifth, the moderate Mouvement Républicain Populaire, founded by Georges Bidault , and the Socialists were the strongest of the ma the pattern of short-lived coalitions reappeared. Banks and major industries were nationalized. American aid (see Marshall Plan ) helped rebuild the shattered economy. To further economic recovery and begin the political integration of Europe, France participated in creating the institutions of what has become the European Union , most notably the European Economic Community (Common Market).French military resources were committed to the West by joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). France sent thousands of soldiers to Indochina in an attempt to defeat the nationalist-Communist movement led by the Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh . The effort collapsed with the French defeat at Dienbienphu (May, 1954). Pierre Mendès-France came to power, determined to end French involvement. French withdrawal from Indochina was agreed upon at the Geneva Conference. Subsequently Morocco and Tunisia also achieved independence. But the war for independence in Algeria destroyed the Fourth Republic. When a right-wing French military coup in Algeria (1958) threatened to spread to metropolitan France, de Gaulle was invited back to power.Gaullist FranceDe Gaulle established the Fifth Republic and became its first president in Dec., 1958. The French Union was transformed into the French Community , and most of France's African holdings became independent by 1960. Algerian independence was negotiated despite a terrorist campaign by the Secret Army Organization (OAS) of extremist French soldiers. De Gaulle aimed at restoring France's prestige in world affairs. France became a nuclear power (1960). France blocked Britain's entrance into the European Economic Community and for a time (1965) boycotted the Market's meetings. Diplomatic recognition was extended (1964) to Communist China. In 1966, de Gaulle withdrew French forces from the integrated command of NATO and forced all U.S. and NATO forces to leave France, although he proclaimed adherence in the event of an &unprovoked attack.&In the spring of 1968 widespread student demonstrations against France's obsolete educational system were joined by striking workers and farmers. De Gaulle dissolved the national assembly and, blaming the Communists for the disorders, won a great electoral victory (June, 1968). The Gaullist party won the first absolute majority in the assembly in French history. But de Gaulle resigned in Apr., 1969, after his proposals for regional reorganization and for revision of the senate were defeated in a referendum.The Contemporary EraGeorges Pompidou , a Gaullist, was elected president in June, 1969. He preserved de Gaulle's independent foreign policy but made innovations domestically, especially in devaluing the franc. In 1971, he reversed French policy and declared support for Britain's entrance into the European Community. Pompidou died suddenly in 1974 and was succeeded as president by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing , his finance minister, who defeated Socialist leader Fran?ois Mitterrand in a close presidential runoff election. Discontent with inflation and unemployment, dissension within the right wing between Giscard and RPR leader Jacques Chirac , and austerity measures imposed by Giscard combined to aid the Socialist party, and Mitterrand won the 1981 presidential election.Mitterrand quickly dissolved the national assembly, and it became predominantly Socialist after new elections. To placate the Communist party, with which the Socialists had been allied since 1977, four Communist ministers were added to the cabinet. Many large industries (steel, nuclear energy, armaments), private banks, and insurance companies were nationalized, and minimum wage and social security benefits were increased. However, by 1982 the economic situation had worsened, in part because of decreased exports and p the government devalued the franc, imposed a wage and price freeze, and granted tax concessions to business. In 1984 Mitterrand re-formed the government, excluding the Communists.In 1986 a right-wing coalition won a majority in Parliament, and Jacques Chirac was appointed prime minister. He began a policy of privatizing state-owned companies. In the 1988 presidential election a right-wing candidate, Jean-Marie Le Pen , ran on an extreme anti-immigration platform and won a significant portion of first-round votes. Mitterrand, however, was reelected in the second round, defeating Chirac.In 1991 France agreed to sign the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Mitterrand turned increasingly to foreign affairs and pursued a more moderate economic program. Nonetheless, in the 1993 elections, with the Socialists devastated by rising unemployment and corruption scandals, conservative parties captured nearly 85% of the seats in the national assembly, and ?douard Balladur , a Gaullist, became premier. The new government slashed interest rates and followed other policies aimed at stemming France's continuing recession. In 1995, Chirac was elected president, defeating Balladur and a S he appointed Alain Juppé as prime minister.France was beset by a host of problems in 1995, including severe floods the government faced international criticism for its nuclear testing in the South Pacific, which it resumed after a three- and the country was paralyzed late in the year by a long transportation workers strike. The strike action was one of many that followed the announcement by Premier Juppé of a comprehensive plan to overhaul the massive social security system and to raise taxes—actions aimed at helping to reduce the budget deficit and enable France to qualify for European monetary union, which was achieved in 1999 (see European Monetary System ). Chirac ended nuclear testing in 1996 and announced plans for scaling back French military deployment and phasing in an all-volunteer force.Following parliamentary elections in 1997, Socialist Lionel Jospin became prime minister. In late 2000, Chirac was accused of involvement in a 1980s kickback scheme that provided funds for political parties when he was mayor of Paris, but he denied any knowledge of the scheme. The charges created political difficulties for Chirac but did not greatly affect his popularity. The Socialist parliament in 2001 approved a bill giving Corsica limited autonomy. The move was originally intended to end separatist violence there, but the year actually saw an increase in attacks, and the law was subsequently ruled in large part to be unconstitutional.In the 2002 presidential and parliamentary elections Chirac won a resounding victory. Jospin, who ran against Chirac for the presidency, failed to make it into the runoff, where Chirac's opponent was the right-wing nationalist Jean-Marie Le Pen. Jospin resigned as premier, and Chirac went on the win the presidency. The Socialists suffered a further setback in the national assembly elections, when the center-right alliance, the Union for the Presidential Majority (UMP; subsequently the Union for a Popular Movement), won three fifths of the seats. Jean-Pierre Raffarin was appointed premier by Chirac.In 2002-3, as the Bush administration pushed for the abandonment of UN weapons inspections in Iraq and for the UN approval of the use of force to oust Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and disarm Iraq, President Chirac became one of the strongest international opponents of war. France threatened to veto any resolution that explicitly authorized the use of force, which led to acrimonious relations with the United States and Great Britain. France's strong stand, which was also supported by Germany, also led to divisions in the European Union and NATO, whose member governments disagreed on whether to use force against Iraq.A referendum in July, 2003, calling for approval of a new Corsican assembly with limited autonomy (made possible by amendments to the constitution) the government had supported the measure in hopes of undercutting Corsican separatists. The following month an estimated 11,000 people, largely elderly, died as a result of a persistent heatwave in which temperatures in parts of the country rose to above 104°F (40°C).Local and regional elections in Mar., 2004, resulted in a clear victory for the Socialists. The vote was seen as rejection of the government's moves to make changes in the French social welfare system, with its generous welfare, health-care, and pension benefits. The government subsequently also suffered losses in the September elections for the senate. In May, 2005, voters rejected the proposed new constitution for the European Union, resulting in a further embarrassment for the government, and Premier Raffarin resigned. Dominique de Villepin , who had been interior minister, succeeded Raffarin as premier.In Oct., 2005, following strident comments by Interior Minister Sarkozy on urban violence linked to immigrants, and the accidental deaths of two black youths who were trying to hide from the police, nighttime riots by persons of African and Arab descent occurred in suburbs of Paris, spread to other Parisian suburbs, and in November spread to many other places in France. The government declared a state of emergency, which lasted for the rest of 2005, but provocative comments by some officials continued to feed immigrant resentment. The riots, which highlighted the alienation and poverty of the French of non-European descent, did not end until after mid-November.A new national crisis arose in early 2006 when Villepin pushed through changes to French labor law that would make it easier to fire workers under age 26 during their first two years with a company. A series of demonstrations and strikes against the law occurred in Mar.-Apr., 2006. Although the law was enacted, in a setback for Villepin, he subsequently announced that it would be replaced by new legislation designed to reduce youth unemployment. Charges that Villepin had targeted (2004) Sarkozy for investigation by the secret service in an attempt to smear his party rival brought calls for Villepin to resign, but Chirac continued to support the premier.Sarkozy secured the UMP nomination for president in Jan., 2007, while the Socialists had earlier nominated Ségolène Royal , the first woman to be a major party candidate for the office. Sarkozy led the crowded field after the first round in Apr., 2007, and soundly defeated Royal in the runoff in May. After taking office, Sarkozy appointed Fran?ois Fillon , a former education and labor minister, as premier.The UMP was expected to gain seats in the subsequent June parliamentary elections, but the party actually lost seats. It nonetheless retained a solid majority in the National Assembly. Proposed pension benefit changes and civil service job cuts led to a nine-day transport workers strike and shorter walkouts by other workers in Nov., 2007. Disenchantment with the economy and with Sarkozy's personal style and his very public divorce and remarriage since becoming president contributed to Socialist gains in the Mar., 2008, local elections. Sarkozy won parliamentary approval in July for constitutional amendments that limit a person to two terms as president and increased some of parliament's powers.BibliographyA classic geographic study is J. Brunhes, Géographie humaine de la France (2 vol., 1920-26), and E. E. Evans, France (1966), is also useful. J. Michelet is still regarded by many as the greatest of French historians. Among more recent general histories of France, those edited by E. Lavisse and by G. Hanotaux are outstanding. A monumental multivolume work is F. Funck-Brentano, ed., National History of France (tr., 10 vol., 1916-36). The many authors of classic historical works on France include, for the medieval period, M. L. Bloch, C. V. Langlois, F. Lot, A. Luchaire, and Fustel de C for the 17th cent., V for the French Revolution and Napoleon I, H. Taine, A. Aulard, G. Lefebvre, A. Mathiez, and F. M for the history of the working class and of commerce, ?. L for cultural history, A. Rambaud.法兰西共和国（法语：République fran?aise），简称法国，位于欧洲西部，与比利时、卢森堡、德国、瑞士、意大利、摩纳哥、安道尔和西班牙接壤，隔英吉利海峡与英国隔海相望。法国是第一、第二次世界大战的主要战胜国，因而成为联合国安理会常任理事国，对议案拥有否决权。法国也是欧盟和北约创始会员国之一，亦是《申根公约》的成员国。[编辑] 历史主条目：法国历史、法兰克和法兰西殖民帝国日，法国民众和军队攻陷巴士底监狱，使这天成为法国国庆日。法国最早的根源大约在10世纪，查理曼帝国分裂；根据843年《凡尔登条约》，东部的部分形成现下的德意志，中部是在后来逐渐消亡的勃艮第，而西部则逐渐成为现在的法兰西。经历过与英国交战足足116年的百年战争后，在15世纪末，法国逐渐地形成了一个中央集权制和君主专制政体的国家，直到1789年爆发的法国大革命才推翻了封建制度及君主制，并开始逐步建立起共和制、推向民主制；法兰西国家格言“自由、平等、博爱”（法语：Liberté, ?galité, Fraternité）这三个词就是从法国大革命中来的。而且在1792年建立法兰西第一共和国；直到1804年拿破仑成为法国皇帝，建立法兰西第一帝国（或称拿破仑帝国），结束了短暂的共和国岁月。其后，法国于1848年因在国民议会的另一次革命和推翻帝制的背景底下，成立了法兰西第二共和国，并由拿破仑三世担任总统，直至1852年的法兰西第二帝国创立，“帝制恢复”。1870年普法战争结束后，法国再次恢复共和制（创立第三共和），并一度于日至5月28日间建立世界历史上第一个无产阶级的专政政权：巴黎公社，但随即被推翻。然后法国民众在普鲁士军队撤走后，又再次恢复了第三共和。经历了一战和二战，第三共和终于到1940年被纳粹德国（德意志第三帝国）所灭。在二战中，戴高乐将军在英国建立流亡政府，称为“自由法国”，与“纳粹德国”的附庸“维希政权”抗衡；抗战其间，再改名为“战斗法国”。战后，法兰西第四共和国由戴高乐将军开始。虽然法兰西是两次世界大战的主要战胜国，但是亦在这两次战争中损失惨重。1958年阿尔及利亚战争爆发，戴高乐将军宣布结束“旧宪法”（法兰西第四共和国宪法），推行“新宪法”（法国宪法），第四共和结束，法兰西第五共和国成立，即现在的法兰西共和国。值得一提的是，在法兰西第五共和国建立时，汲取了前几次议会民主制失败的教训，因此开始创立并执行半总统半议会民主制（双首长制），维持到现时法国的政体，并未改变。而最近几年法国和德国的密切合作成为欧洲经济一体化不可或缺的主要动力，例如在1999年欧元的流通就是一例。今天，法国站在欧洲，寻求在更多领域进行更密切合作的最前端。[编辑] 政治法兰西第五共和国（即现在的法国）的宪法于日由法国民众全体公民投票通过。日制订的宪法决定了第五共和国的国家政体运作方式。此後宪法经历多次修订，它大大增强了行政机关与议会的关系。共和国总统：国家元首由普选直接选举产生，任期5年（日法国全民公决之后确立总统任期5年制）；并由总统任命总理，和根据法国宪法第8条，总理的提名来任命政府其他成员。总统主持内阁会议，颁布法律；总统亦是三军统帅。另外，根据宪法第16条，在面临重大危机时，总统拥有采取非常措施的权力，例如宣布国家进入紧急状态或启动全国动员令等等。根据宪法第20和21条，在总理的领导下，政府决定并主管国家的政策；领导政府的运作，保证法律的实施；政府向议会负责。尼古拉·萨科齐是现任法兰西第五共和国（即现在的法国）的第六任总统，他于日正式就任；弗朗索瓦·菲永则于日被尼古拉·萨科齐任命为现任的法国总理。国民议会（法语：Assemblée nationale）是国家的最高立法机关，总共有577名议员，每名议员代表单一的选区。议会成员由民众直接选举产生，任期5年。法国总统有权解散国民议会。参议院（法语：Sénat）总共有321名参议员，参议员由一个选举机构选举产生，任期9年；而且每3年更换三分之一的参议员。在2004年9月以后，参议员的任期缩短为6年；并且在2010年增加席次至346席。参议院的立法职能受到限制；当两个议会意见不同时，国家议会拥有最后裁决权。政府对议会的议事日程有很大的影响力。[编辑] 行政区划主条目：法国行政区划和法国城市[编辑] 本土行政区划法国城市。法国有26个大区（行政区的一种，本土有22个）（法语：Régions administratives），这些行政区再进一步分割成100个省（本土有96个）（法语：Départements；中文翻译：区份、省、县）。这些区份都主要被按字母顺序编号，这些号码被用于邮递区号或车辆牌照。省由专区（法语：arrondissement）组成，每个专区被分为几个乡（法语：canton），每个乡包括几个市镇（法语：commune）；而市镇是法国最小的行政区划单位。[编辑] 海外区份及殖民地主条目：法国海外区份和法兰西殖民地在海外的区份是法国的前殖民地，这些地区在法国享受着与欧洲国家相似的待遇。他们可以被认为是法国的一部分，或欧盟的一部分。 法国的海外属地包含：4个海外省份（départements d’outre-mer, DOM）：瓜德罗普(Guadeloupe)，马提尼克(Martinique)，圭亚那(Guyane)，留尼汪岛(La Réunion)。5个海外领地(collectivité d’outre-mer)：法属波利尼西亚（987）(Polynésie fran?aise)，沃裡斯伏塔那群島（986）(Wallis et Futuna)，马约特（976）(Mayotte)，圣皮埃尔和密克隆群岛（975）(Saint-Pierre et Miquelon)，法属南极领地(Les Terres australes et antarctiques　fran?aises)。1个特殊行政单位（Statut spécifique）：新喀里多尼亚(La Nouvelle Calédonie)。请参见：海外领地和海外地区[编辑] 地理主条目：法国地理法国地理面积551,695平方公里，法国地势复杂，西部和北部地区为滨海平原，法国在此滨临英吉利海峡、北海和大西洋。南部地区有比利牛斯山脈，东南部是阿尔卑斯山地，中南部还有中央高原。主要的河流有卢瓦尔河、罗讷河、加龙河和塞纳河等。巴黎的塞纳河左岸涵盖了塞纳河畔一个整体的扇形区域。在巴黎市区内如果你乘船由塞纳河顺流而下，船首左侧所展现的就是巴黎左岸的风光。塞纳左岸是巴黎建市之初的见证人，它的腹地集中了巴黎城创建初期的历史遗迹。请参见：英吉利海峡、法国国家公园、法国河流、法国山脉和法国岛屿[编辑] 经济主条目：法国经济、法国金融和法国企业列表首架完成的空中客车A380法国经济结合了现代化的资本主义经济以及政府干预。政府在各个行业的主要版块依然有重要影响；在铁路、电力、航空和电讯企业，政府还拥有主要的控制权。从1990年代初开始，法国政府就一直在逐渐放宽对这些版块的控管，并正在缓慢地释出在法国电信、法国航空以及保险、金融、国防企业的控股份额。除此之外，肥沃的田土、先进的技术以及政府的补助使法国成为西欧领先的农业生产的国家。作为八大工业国之一，法国名义上的国内生产总值排行第六或第七。[1]法国与欧盟其余十一个成员国在日开始使用欧元，到2002年才全面取代法国法郎(?)。[2]根据经济合作与发展组织，法国在2004年是世界上第五大出口国家、第四大制成品入口国。2003年，法国是经合组织中第二大接受外国直接投资的国家，投资总额大约470亿欧元。[3]同年，法国公司的境外投资总额达573亿欧元，仅次于美国的1738亿欧元，超过了英国的553亿欧元，在经合组织中排行第二。根据经合组织2005年的数据，法国是八大工业国中生产力（＝国内生产总值／工作时数）最高的国家。[4]2004年，法国的每个工作小时的国内生产总值为47.7美元，美国则为46.3美元，德国42.1美元，英国39.6美元，而日本则为32.5美元。[5]请参见：法国工业、法国商业、法国农产业和法国旅游业[编辑] 法国农业主条目：法国农牧业法国畜牧业在第二次世界大战后发展较快。80年代初畜牧业和种植业的产值比重大致保持在55％和45％左右。另外农场平均规模不断扩大，根据1980年度农业普查，平均规模已经超过25公顷。这些大农场主要分布在巴黎盆地。[6]畜牧业集中在诺曼底、布列塔尼和中央高原。中央高原以养牛业为主，布列塔尼以养猪为主，西北部则以养羊为主。当地养禽业较普遍，鹅肝就是有名的出口食品。 [6]农业方面，法国盛产小麦、大麦、玉米、葡萄酒、酪农产品、糖制品、水果及蔬菜等等。[7][编辑] 货币主条目：法郎和欧元日，法国和其他11个欧洲国家共同参与使用欧元，并在2002年初正式开始使用欧元硬币和纸币，完全取代之前的法郎。欧元与法郎之间的汇率固定为日的比价，即1欧元兑换6.55957法郎。[编辑] 通讯主条目：法国通讯[编辑] 交通运输主条目：法国交通[编辑] 铁路主条目：法国铁路系统[编辑] 公路主条目：法国高速公路和法国道路网络[编辑] 人口主条目：法国人口和法国人口普查根据日法国人口普查统计数字显示，法国约有人口64,473,140，若不包括海外领地和海外地区（简称：DOM、TOM）则为61,875,822人 。另外法国大概有60万华人，主要以温州人和（中南半岛／印度支那）印支华人为主。[编辑] 语言主条目：法语法国官方语言为法语；然而，最近法国政府开始鼓励学校和政府机构使用一些地方语言，例如：巴斯克语、布列塔尼语、阿尔萨斯语（属德语）、弗拉芒语（属荷兰语）、科西嘉语，朗格多克语， 普罗旺斯语 等；一些学校开始教授当地方言，但是法语依然是全国官方语言。阿尔萨斯人英语正在成为法国第二语言。[来源请求]布列塔尼人中的一些农村居民以布列塔尼语为口语。科西嘉人日常生活中亦常用当地的两种方言：一种与意大利托斯卡纳方言相近，另一种与撒丁岛北部方言相近。请参见：阿尔萨斯英语和法语方言[编辑] 宗教主条目：法国宗教、法国国教和法国宗教历史法国主要宗教是天主教，其次是基督新教、东正教、伊斯兰教和犹太教。基督教天主教：有教徒4500多万。全国分17个教省，90个教区。基督新教：比较大的派别有长老宗和信义宗。东正教：有教徒约53万人。其中约30万在巴黎。另外，法国有亚美尼亚正教徒约18万人。伊斯兰教：是法国的第二大宗教。有伊斯兰教徒约200万人，其中75万人集中在巴黎。犹太教：有教徒54万人，主要分布在巴黎。[编辑] 文化主条目：法国文化法国文化富有多元性，13世纪以来法国都是世界文化中心之一。法国文化具有浓厚的哥德式和天主教式融合的风格。现代法国文化则因为经历了许多挫折，例如英法百年战争、法国王朝中央集权制专政时代、法国大革命、巴黎公社、普法战争、两次世界大战等等，这一切都对法国文化产生严重的不良影响和蹂躏践踏，但在这个过程当中有不断涌现和产生出新的文化融合来，造就出今天的法兰西文化；然而，这自然就与古代古典的法兰克文化相对地显得曲折离奇和大相径庭了。[编辑] 文化史主条目：法国文化史从历史的角度来讲，法国在远久的历史中，就一直夹杂着古罗马古典的文化气息和以前被认为“蛮族”的法兰克、哥特人和高卢人的文化特色；这一点在后来濒临罗马帝国灭亡的3世纪到4世纪彰显得更为鲜明；法兰克地区的蛮族群越境进入古罗马在现今法国的疆界中进行军事政治和文化习俗等等领域上的入侵，再加上基督教得到在罗马帝国的合法地位（311年颁布罗马皇帝《米兰法令》）甚至国教地位（392年成立罗马基督天主教会，或称梵蒂冈教会）；种种原因为这一文化糅合的色彩进一步推进罗马帝国法兰克地区行省而产生出崭新的“法兰西文化”提供了客观、有利和大势所趋的条件；文化糅合这一点不仅能从当时4世纪罗马帝国法兰克行省的市镇和村庄生活中看到——古罗马式的建筑与新兴蛮族风味的基督教堂兴起、蛮族生活方式进入罗马人体系中等等；甚至连罗马帝国官方的军队管理形式也受到了法兰克文化客观上的“入侵”——法兰克、斯拉夫和德意志人的大量移民改变了罗马军团在军营里面的管理和训练形式。种种客观的历史迹象综合起来，法兰克与古罗马的文化是相糅合而产生出崭新的中世纪文化，法兰西文化又在中世纪主流文化中担当不可或缺的角色，而古罗马文化与法兰西文化平等地相辅相成：法兰西受到古罗马文化渲染而演成文化同化或是进步，而古罗马又从法兰克的大量移民中领会到了蛮族训练军队和管理民众的方式甚至是他们的文化特征，从而巩固罗马帝国对人民的统治。[编辑] 文学主条目：法国文学和法国文学史[编辑] 文学家主条目：法国文学家[编辑] 戏剧主条目：法国戏剧、法国舞台剧和法国戏剧史[编辑] 戏剧家主条目：法国戏剧家和法国演员[编辑] 体育主条目：法国体育法国网球公开赛(Internationaux de France de Roland-Garros) 是巴黎举行的一项网球大满贯赛事，每年五至六月举行。环法自行车赛(Le Tour de France) 是法国每年的自行车赛盛事，每年夏季七月均会举办。1938年及1998年，主办世界杯足球赛，更于1998年决赛以3比0击败巴西队夺得冠军。1900年及1924年，巴黎两次主办夏季奥运会。第一届冬季奥林匹克运动会于1924年夏慕尼(Chamonix)举行，其后两次于1968年格勒诺布尔(Grenoble)，1992年阿尔贝维尔(Albertville)主办。[编辑] 体育家主条目：法国运动员齐达内Zinedine Zidane 为法国近年优秀的运动员，带领法国夺得1998年世界杯冠军。亦曾于1998年、2000年及2003年被选为国际足球协会(FIFA)世界足球先生。[编辑] 哲学思想主条目：法国哲学和法国哲学史[编辑] 思想家主条目：法国思想家让o梅叶（）是法国空想社会主义者。著有《遗书》。孟德斯鸠（）是法国一位百科全书式的学者。《波斯人信札》、《论法的精神》。伏尔泰（）是法国启蒙运动的领袖，政治家、历史学家和哲学家。 著有《哲学辞典》。卢梭（）是法国激进的民主主义者哲学家、教育家、文学家和启蒙思想家。作品有《论人类不平等的起源和基础》、《社会契约论》、《爱弥尔》及自传《忏悔录》。巴贝夫（）是法国革命家和空想社会主义者。让一保罗·萨特（），法国当代著名作家，哲学家，存在主义文学的创始人。 作品有《存在主义是一种人道主义》《存在与虚无》《恶心》《恭敬的妓女》。阿尔贝·加缪()Albert Camus 法国作家。 作品《局外人》。[编辑] 音乐主条目：法国音乐和法国音乐史[编辑] 主要的音乐家与乐队主条目：法国音乐家和法国乐队[编辑] 饮食主条目：法国餐厅和法国烹饪[编辑] 节假日假期 日期 汉译 当地名称 备注1月1日 元旦 Jour de l'An- 受难日 P?ques 星期日，具体日期不固定- 复活节 Lundi de P?ques 星期一，具体日期不固定5月1日 劳动节 Fête du Travail5月8日 1945年胜利日 Victoire 1945- 耶稣升天节 Ascension 星期四，具体日期不固定- 圣灵降临节 Pentec?te 星期日，具体日期不固定7月14日 国庆日 Fête Nationale 国庆日8月15日 圣母升天节 Assomption11月1日 圣灵节 Toussaint11月11日 第一次世界大战重光日 Armistice 1918 “1918 停火日”12月25日 圣诞节 No?l[编辑] 法律制度主条目：法国法律制度法国法律制度属于欧陆法系，是成文法律，不容许法官制定法律。法官只能够根据以往的判例来诠释法律。法国法律的基本精神仍然跟从《法国民法典》。根据《人权和公民权宣言》，只有危害社会的行为才会被禁止。法国司法制度拥有两套相互独立的法院系统，即行政法院系统和普通法院系统，两者并行运转。两个法院系统有各自管辖的诉讼案件并能够作出最终的判决。行政法院系统，由行政法院、上诉行政法院和最高行政法院所组成，而普通法院系统则由基层法院（初审法庭、大审法庭、轻罪法院、重罪法院、商事法院、劳资调解委员会等）、上诉法院和最高法院组成。为了解决两个法院系统在管辖范围上的争议，法国还设立了权限争议法庭。[8][编辑] 教育主条目：法国教育请参见：法国大学、法兰西学院——法兰西学院（法语：Académie fran?aise）和法兰西学院（法语：Collège de France）?[编辑] 外交主条目：法国外交和法国外交史请参见：中法关系和中法关系史[编辑] 军事主条目：法国军事、法国军事史和法国国防法国军队的最高统帅是法国总统；统领海、陆、空三军。另外，法国官方已正式向外宣布拥有核武器。[编辑] 海军主条目：法国海军和法国海军史杜肯号驱逐舰[编辑] 陆军主条目：法国陆军、法国外籍兵团和法国陆军史[编辑] 空军主条目：法国空军和法国空军史
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